tokenpocket官网新版app下载|ethnic minority groups
tokenpocket官网新版app下载|ethnic minority groups
民族和国籍在英语中如何区分?外国人是没有「民族」的概念吗? - 知乎
民族和国籍在英语中如何区分?外国人是没有「民族」的概念吗? - 知乎首页知乎知学堂发现等你来答切换模式登录/注册民族国家种族民族和国籍在英语中如何区分?外国人是没有「民族」的概念吗?那天带外国人吃云南菜,想说这是个少数民族菜,突然想到一个问题,minority 在老外理解看来是少数人群吧,并不是特指民族概念吧?民族在英文中也是 n…显示全部 关注者91被浏览102,267关注问题写回答邀请回答2 条评论分享14 个回答默认排序王赟 Maigo2022 年度新知答主 关注「民族」有对应的英语词。若是指某一个人的民族属性,可以说 ethnicity;若是指某一个民族群体,可以说 ethnic group。minority 指「少数群体」,不一定按民族划分。但在讨论民族的语境中,就是指「少数民族」了。在没有语境的情况下,可以说 minority ethnic groups 明确指代「少数民族」。发布于 2017-12-13 02:44赞同 295 条评论分享收藏喜欢收起匿名用户将“民族”译为 nationality 是中国的官方译法,有历史惯性。现代英文中,除了少数例外,nationality 实际已经被“国籍”独占。表示“民族”时,为避免误会,一般使用 ethnic group。People 也可表示民族(表示民族时,复数为peoples),但似乎现在使用较少,而且几乎见不到单数使用,只用复数 peoples 表示笼统的“多个民族”。另,美国也常用 ethnic origin,强调“来自”哪里。编辑于 2017-12-13 09:48赞同 5014 条评论分享收藏喜欢
Chinese Ethnic Groups, Minority People Groups in China
Chinese Ethnic Groups, Minority People Groups in China
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Chinese Ethnic Groups
Written by Fercility JiangUpdated Jul. 18, 2023
China is a multi-ethnic nation. Besides Han Chinese, who make up over 90% of China's population, there are officially 55 minority ethnic groups living in China. Their costumes, festivals, and customs can be unique and colorful and are some of China's unique attractions.
The 10 Most Popular Minorities with Tourists
Most of the 10 most popular minorities in China live in unusually beautiful countryside or natural areas. Tourists like to see that as well as enjoy their distinctive cuisines and entertainment. Some such as the Tibetans, Manchus, and Uyghurs have notable ancient architecture, while others such as the Zhuang and Yao are noted for their beautiful terraced fields.
1. Zhuang - The Largest Ethnic Group
Longji Ancient Zhuang Village
The Zhuang ethnic group is the largest of the 55 minorities in China. About 18 million live in the south and southeast. Their main homeland is in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region and Yunnan Province. Others live in Hunan, Guizhou and Sichuan provinces.
Ethnic traits: Their main regional attractions are their beautiful countryside areas with intricate and beautifully scenic terraced fields such as Longji Old Zhuang Village (龙脊古壮寨). For an enjoyable visit, see our 4-Day Guilin City Essence and Longji Terraced Fields Hiking Tour.
2. Mongolians - The Most Famous Ethnic Minority
Mongolian people
The Mongolian ethnic group is best known for conquering most of Eurasia and establishing a large empire almost 1,000 years ago. The Mongolian Yuan Empire lasted about 100 years until 1368. Now, 6 million remain in China in Inner Mongolia, Jilin, Heilongjiang, Liaoning, Xinjiang, Hebei, and Qinghai Provinces.
Ethnic traits: They love hearty meat dishes, wrestling and horseback riding. Their annual Naadam summer sporting events are popular highlights you can visit with us.
3. The Hui - Chinese Muslims, the Most Widespread Minority
Lanzhou Hand Pulled Noodles Soup with beef is served in Hui restaurants all over China.
The Hui ethnic group is China's most widely distributed ethnic minority who are distinguished mainly by being ethnically Muslim. There is a sizeable population of 11 million. They live in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region in northwestern China and in many cities and villages in the provinces of Gansu, Xinjiang, Qinghai, Hebei, Henan, Sichuan, Yunnan and Shandong.
Ethnic traits: Though they are culturally like the Han, they are distinguished by being converts to Islam or being descendants of Muslims. They don't have a language of their own, and most keep almost no Muslim customs. They are unlike the Uyghurs who retain their own language and culture. Hui are known across China for their popular Lanzhou noodle restaurants.
4. Miao - Distinctive Culture and Architecture
A Miao girl dressed in their silver clothing and jewelry.
The Miao ethnic group consists of about 10 million people in China, and their traditional homeland is around the area of Guizhou where 4 million now live. But they were scattered widespread by persecution .
Ethnic traits: The Miao are quite interesting to visit. They prefer silver, and the women clothe themselves in silver suits and jewelry, and these make good souvenirs. They were fiercely independent, and love music. They have a distinctive style of music and architectural style that tourists can appreciate.
5. Dong - Famed for Lusheng Music and Architecture
Chengyang Bridge
The Dong live mainly in the provinces of Guizhou, Hunan, and Guangxi. Their villages are often located near Miao villages in Guizhou, and there are about 3 million of them in China. Their language is related to Thai.
Like the Miao, the Dong are known for fine Lusheng music. They are famed for distinctive polyphonal musical concerts, and their architecture and craftsmanship as exemplified in Chengyang Bridge in the Sanjiang Village area is distinctive and appreciated by tourists.
6. Uyghur - The Largest Ethnic Group in Xinjiang
The Jiaohe Ruins
The Uyghurs are a distinctive minority whose homeland is Xinjiang. About 11 million live there and in other parts of China, especially in Hunan and Henan.
Their language is related to Turkish. Around China, they are known for their "Lanzhou noodle" restaurants and delicious Xinjiang-style food. They have a long and colorful history on the Silk Road. Turpan, for example, is an excellent place to see their ancient culture and architecture such as the Jaiohe Ruins.
7. Manchu - The Creators of the Qing Empire
The Forbidden City is where you can see how the Manchu dynastic clan lived together.
The Manchu ethnic group in China are the descendants of the Manchus and Mongolians who invaded the Ming Empire and created the Qing Empire (1664–1912). Now about 11 million live in China. They now live mainly in their ancestral territories in the provinces of Liaoning, Heilongjiang, and Jilin.
After the founding of the Qing Empire, the Manchus were assimilated with the majority Han. Now, only a small percentage speak the traditional language. You can learn about their history and empire at the Palace Museum.
8. Tibetans - Descendants of a Powerful Empire
Tibetans mainly live in Tibet Autonomous Region in western China.
The Tibetans once ruled the mountains of southwest China, and they had a vast empire from the 7th to the 9th centuries. Now, about 6 million live in China, and 3 million of them live in Tibet that was their former stronghold.
Physically, the Tibetans are unusual in that they are unusually well adapted to living at high altitude. Those living at high altitudes have 10 times more nitric oxide in their blood than most people. Many are devout Buddhists. The massive Potala Palace in Lhasa, their former capital, is a good place to learn about their culture and history.
9. Yao - Famed for Their Rice Terraces
The Red Yao women of Longsheng, Guilin have unusually long hair.
The Yao ethnic group has a population of over 2.6 million. They live mainly in Guangxi, Hunan, Yunnan, Guangdong, Guizhou and Jiangxi Provinces together with the Zhuang.
Ethnic traits: Most of the Yao people are farmers who live in small villages and towns that are distributed widely in mountainous areas. To see them at work and visit their villages, you can take a trip to Guilin to the Dazhai Village area to the see their beautiful Jinkeng Terraced Fields.
10. Naxi - Noted for the Unique Culture and Waterworks
The Naxi are a comparatively small group of people who mainly live in Yunnan Province. The city of Lijiang is where most of their 330,000 population live. The government designates the distinctive Mosuo people of the Lugu Lake area outside of Lijiang as Naxi as well. About 50,000 Mosuo live there.
Ethnic traits: The two groups are quite different. The Mosuo are noted for a heavily matriarchal social system. The Naxi are more cosmopolitan. They have their own distinctive writing system and literature. They were historically traders who built intricate waterworks for their towns exemplified in the Ancient Town of Lijiang.
Some Other Ethnic Groups in China
A Bai girl in traditional Bai clothes
We also have information about these 10 interesting ethnic groups in China:
Bai Minority: noted for business and cultural sophistication, mostly in Yunnan
Dai Minority: They live in tropical lowlands and are closely related to Thai people, mostly in Yunnan
Hani Minority: beautiful terraced rice paddies and quality tea, mostly in Yunnan
Kazak Minority: a Turkic pastoralist people and neighbors with the Uyghurs
Qiang Minority: a mountain people with mysterious origins and Central Asian architecture, mostly in Sichuan
Shui Minority: a coastal people who migrated inland and retain many aspects of a coastal lifestyle, mostly in Guizhou
Tujia Minority: The Tujia inhabit several rugged scenic areas such as Zhangjiajie.
Yi Minority: known historically for building the Nanzhao empire and now known for acrobatic dances, mostly in Yunnan
Buyi Minority: noted for their towns made of stone, mostly in Guizhou
Lisu Minority: noted for long festivals, dancing and native instruments in a wilderness area, mostly in Yunnan
See China's Minorities during a Tailor-Made China Tour
Your whole family can have a fascinating and memorable visit in an ethnic village.
If you want to explore China's ethnic villages. See our China's Festival Tours and our China Minority Tours of southwestern China and Tibet, or simply contact us for a tailor-made tour.
Shangri-La Exploration Tour - 8-Day Kunming, Dali, Lijiang, and Shangri-La Highlights Tour
Yunnan Ethnic Minorities Tour - 6-Day Kunming, Dali, and Lijiang Highlights Tour
Further Reading
The Guizhou Museum of Marriage Customs of Ethnic Minorities is the only museum in China that features marriage customs of ethnic minorities.
China's Top Minority Cities
Southern Minority Food
Silk Road History will help you learn about the history of the Uyghurs, Mongolians and other peoples along the Silk Road route and Xinjiang.
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Ethnic minorities in China - Wikipedia
Ethnic minorities in China - Wikipedia
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1History of ethnicity in China
Toggle History of ethnicity in China subsection
1.1Early history
1.2Distinguishing nationalities in the PRC
1.3Reform and opening up
2Ethnic groups
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2.1Demographics
2.2List of ethnic groups
2.3Undistinguished ethnic groups
3Guarantee of rights and interests
4Religions and their most common affiliations
5Ethnic Minority Representation in the leadership of the CCP
6See also
7References
8Further reading
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Ethnic minorities in China
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
55 recognized ethnic minorities in Mainland China
For a list of ethnic groups in China, see List of ethnic groups in China and Languages of China.
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vte
Ethnic minorities in China are the non-Han population in the People's Republic of China (PRC).
The PRC officially recognizes 55 ethnic minority groups within China in addition to the Han majority.[1] As of 2010, the combined population of officially-recognized minority groups comprised 8.49% of the population of Mainland China.[2] In addition to these officially-recognized ethnic minority groups, there are Chinese nationals who privately classify themselves as members of unrecognized ethnic groups, such as the very small Chinese Jewish, Tuvan, and Ili Turk communities, as well as the much larger Oirat and Japanese communities.
In Chinese, 'ethnic minority' has translated to shǎoshù mínzú (少數民族), wherein mínzú (民族) means 'nationality' or 'nation' (as in ethnic group)—in line with the Soviet concept of ethnicity—and shǎoshù (少數) means 'minority'.[3][4][5] Since the anthropological concept of ethnicity does not precisely match the Chinese or Soviet concepts (which are defined and regulated by the state), some scholars use the neologism zúqún (族群, 'ethnic group') to unambiguously refer to ethnicity.[6] Including shaoshu mínzu, Sun Yat-sen used the term zhōnghuá mínzú (中華民族, 'Chinese nation' or 'Chinese nationality') to reflect his belief that all of China's ethnic groups were parts of a single Chinese nation.[7]
The ethnic minority groups officially recognized by the PRC include those residing within mainland China as well as Taiwanese aborigines. However, the PRC does not accept the term aborigines or its variations, since it might suggest that Han people are not indigenous to Taiwan, or that Taiwan is not a core territory of China. Also, where the Republic of China (ROC) government in Taiwan, as of 2020, officially recognises 16 Taiwanese aboriginal tribes, the PRC classifies them all under a single ethnic group, the Gāoshān (高山, 'high mountain') minority, out of reluctance to recognize ethnic classifications derived from the work of Japanese anthropologists during the Japanese colonial era. (This is despite the fact that not all Taiwanese aborigines have traditional territories in the mountains; for example, the Tao People traditionally inhabit the island of Lanyu.) The regional governments of Hong Kong and Macau do not use this ethnic classification system, so figures by the PRC government exclude these two territories.
History of ethnicity in China[edit]
Further information: Ethnic groups in Chinese history and Racism in China
Early history[edit]
An 8th-century Tang dynasty Chinese clay figurine of a Sogdian man (an Eastern Iranian person) wearing a distinctive cap and face veil, possibly a camel rider or even a Zoroastrian priest engaging in a ritual at a fire temple, since face veils were used to avoid contaminating the holy fire with breath or saliva; Museum of Oriental Art (Turin), Italy.[8]
Throughout much of recorded Chinese history, there was little attempt by Chinese authors to separate the concepts of nationality, culture, and ethnicity.[9] Those outside of the reach of imperial control and dominant patterns of Chinese culture were thought of as separate groups of people regardless of whether they would today be considered as a separate ethnicity. The self-conceptualization of Han largely revolved around this center-periphery cultural divide. Thus, the process of Sinicization throughout history had as much to do with the spreading of imperial rule and culture as it did with actual ethnic migration.[citation needed]
This understanding persisted (with some changes during the Qing dynasty due to the importation of Western ideas) until the Communists seized power in 1949. Their understanding of minorities had been heavily influenced by the policies of the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin—and they also influenced the Communist regimes in the neighbouring countries of Vietnam and Laos[10]—but the Soviet definition of minorities did not cleanly map onto the Chinese people's historical definition of minorities. Soviet thinking about minorities was based on the belief that a nation consisted of people who spoke and wrote a common language, people whose culture was historic, and historic territory. Therefore, The people who inhabited each nation had the theoretical right to secede from a proposed federated government.[11] This differed from the previous way of thinking mainly in that instead of defining all those under imperial rule as Chinese, the nation (as defined as a space upon which power is projected) and ethnicity (the identity of the governed) were now separate; being under central rule no longer automatically meant being defined as Chinese. The Soviet model as applied to China gave rise to the autonomous regions in China; these areas were thought to be their own nations that had theoretical autonomy from the central government.[12]
During World War II, the American Asiatic Association published an entry in the 40th volume of their academic journal, Asia, concerning the problem of whether Chinese Muslims were Chinese or a separate 'ethnic minority', and the factors which led to either classification.[13] It tackled the question of why Muslims who were Chinese were considered a different race from other Chinese, and the separate question of whether all Muslims in China were united into one race. The first problem was posed with a comparison to Chinese Buddhists, who were not considered a separate race.[14] It concluded that the reason Chinese Muslims were considered separate was because of different factors like religion, culture, military feudalism, and that considering them a "racial minority" was wrong. It also came to the conclusion that the Japanese military spokesman was the only person who was propagating the false assertion that Chinese Muslims had "racial unity", which was disproved by the fact that Muslims in China were composed of multitudes of different races, separate from each other as were the "Germans and English", such as the Mongol Hui of Hezhou, Salar Hui of Qinghai, and Chan Tou Hui of Turkistan. The Japanese were trying to spread the lie that Chinese Muslims were one race, in order to propagate the claim that they should be separated from China into an "independent political organization."[13]
Distinguishing nationalities in the PRC[edit]
Early documents of the People's Republic of China (PRC), such as the 1982 constitution,[15] followed the Soviet practice of identifying 'nationalities' in the sense of ethnic groups (the concept is not to be confused with state citizenship).[3][5] The Chinese term mínzú (民族), borrowed from Japanese during the Republican period, translates this Soviet concept. The English translation (common in official documents) of 'nationality' again follows Soviet practice; in order to avoid confusion, however, alternative phraseology such as 'ethnicity' or 'ethnic group' is often used. Since the anthropological concept of ethnicity does not precisely match the Chinese or Soviet concepts (which, after all, are defined and regulated by the state), some scholars use the neologism zuqun (族群, 'ethnic group') to unambiguously refer to ethnicity.[6]
After 1949, a team of social scientists was assembled to enumerate the various mínzú. An immediate difficulty was that identities "on the ground" did not necessarily follow logically from things like shared languages or cultures; two neighboring regions might seem to share a common culture, and yet insist on their distinct identities.[16] Since this would lead to absurd results—every village could hardly send a representative to the National People's Congress—the social scientists attempted to construct coherent groupings of minorities using language as the main criterion for differentiation. Thus some villages with very different cultural practices and histories were lumped together under the same ethnonym. For example, the "Zhuang" ethnic group largely served as a catch-all for various hill villages in Guangxi province.[17]
The actual census taking of who was and was not a minority further eroded the neat differentiating lines the social scientists had drawn up. Individual ethnic status was often awarded based on family tree histories. If one had a father (or mother, for ethnic groups that were considered matrilineal) that had a surname considered to belong to a particular ethnic group, then one was awarded the coveted minority status. This had the result that villages that had previously thought of themselves as homogenous and essentially Han were now divided between those with ethnic identity and those without.[18]
The team of social scientists that assembled the list of all the ethnic groups also described what they considered to be the key differentiating attributes between each group, including culture, custom, and language. The center then used this list of attributes to select representatives of each group to perform on television and radio in an attempt to reinforce the government's narrative of China as a multi-ethnic state and to prevent the culture of the minority ethnic groups from assimilating by the Han and the rest of the world.[19] However, with the development of modern technology, these attempts brought little effect. In fact, many of those labeled as specific minorities bore no relationship to the music, clothing, and other practices presented with images and representations of "their people" in the media.
Under this process, 39 ethnic groups were recognized by the first national census in 1954. This further increased to 54 by the second national census in 1964, with the Lhoba group added in 1965. The last change was the addition of the Jino people in 1979, bringing the number of recognized ethnic groups to the current 56.
Reform and opening up[edit]
Ethnolinguistic map of China in 1983.[20]However, as China opened up and reformed post-1979, many Han acquired enough money to begin to travel. One of the favorite travel experiences of the wealthy was visits to minority areas, to see the exotic rituals of the minority peoples.[21][22] Responding to this interest, many minority entrepreneurs, despite themselves perhaps never having grown up practicing the dances, rituals, or songs themselves, began to cater to these tourists by performing acts similar to what the older generation or the local residents told. In this way, the groups of people named Zhuang or other named minorities have begun to have more in common with their fellow co-ethnics, as they have adopted similar self-conceptions in response to the economic demand of consumers for their performances.[citation needed]
The categorization of 55 minority groups was a major step forward from denial of the existence of different ethnic groups in China which had been the policy of Sun Yet-Sen's Nationalist government that came to power in 1911, which also engaged in the common use of derogatory names to refer to minorities (a practice officially abolished in 1951).[3] However, the Communist Party's categorization was also rampantly criticized since it reduced the number of recognized ethnic groups by eightfold,[citation needed] and today the wei shibie menzu (literally 'undistinguished ethnic groups') total more than 730,000 people. These groups include Geija, Khmu, Kucong, Mang, Deng, Sherpas, Bajia and Youtai (Jewish).[citation needed]
After the breakup of Yugoslavia and the dissolution of the Soviet Union, there was a shift in official conceptions of minorities in China: rather than defining them as 'nationalities', they became 'ethnic groups'. The difference between 'nationality' and 'ethnicity', as Uradyn Erden-Bulag describes it, is that the former treats the minorities of China as societies with "a fully functional division of labor," history, and territory, whereas the latter treats minorities as a "category" and focuses on their maintenance of boundaries and their self-definition in relation to the majority group. These changes are reflected in uses of the term mínzú (民族) and its translations. The official journal Minzu Tuanjie changed its English name from Nationality Unity to Ethnic Unity in 1995. Similarly, the Central University for Nationalities changed its name to Minzu University of China. Scholars began to prefer the term zuqun (族群, 'ethnic group') over minzu.[23] The Chinese model for identifying and categorizing ethnic minorities established at the founding of the PRC followed the Soviet model, drawing inspiration from Joseph Stalin's 1953 'four commons' criteria to identify ethnic groups: "(1) a distinct language; (2) a recognized indigenous homeland or common territory; (3) a common economic life; and (4) a strong sense of identity and distinctive customs, including dress, religion and foods."[citation needed]
Following the breakup of the Soviet Union intellectuals and policymakers within China began to argue that the designation of minority groups could be a threat to the country. Violence in Xinjiang and Tibet provided evidence for this argument. Beijing University professor Ma Rong argued that the Chinese Communist Party had unwittingly created a "dual structure" of governance in which the representation and identity given to recognized ethnic groups would increase ethnocultural differences and create social conflict. He recommended new policies of ethnic fusion and assimilation. These proposals made by Ma and others were controversial at the time but they would find a place at the heart of the policy of the Xi Jinping administration. Xi has shifted state policy towards assimilation in what he calls the "grand minzu fusion" or "the coalescing of blood and minds."[24] The CCP under Xi has reacted to violence committed by a number of Uyghurs by the imprisonment of this group in the Xinjiang internment camps.[25]
In 2020 a Han Chinese was named director of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission for the first time since 1954.[24]
Ethnic groups[edit]
See also: List of ethnic groups in China
The Long-horn tribe, a small branch of ethnic Miao in the western part of Guizhou Province
China is officially composed of 56 ethnic groups (55 minorities plus the dominant Han). However, some of the ethnic groups as classified by the PRC government contain, within themselves, diverse groups of people. Various groups of the Miao minority, for example, speak different dialects of the Hmong–Mien languages, Tai–Kadai languages, and Chinese, and practice a variety of different cultural customs.[26] Whereas in many nations a citizen's minority status is defined by their self-identification as an ethnic minority, in China minority nationality (xiaoshu minzu) is fixed at birth, a practice that can be traced to the foundation of the PRC, when the Communist Party commissioned studies to categorize and delineate groups based on research teams' investigation of minorities' social history, economic life, language and religion in China's different regions.
The degree of variation between ethnic groups is not consistent. Many ethnic groups are described as having unique characteristics from other minority groups and from the dominant Han, but there are also some that are very similar to the Han majority group. Most Hui Chinese are indistinguishable from Han Chinese except for the fact that they practice Islam, and most Manchu are considered to be largely assimilated into dominant Han society.[citation needed]
China's official 55 minorities are located primarily in the south, west, and north of China. Only Tibet Autonomous Region and Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region have a majority population of official minorities, while all other provinces, municipalities and regions of China have a Han majority. In Beijing itself, the Han ethnic composition makes up nearly 96% of the total population, while the ethnic minority total is 4.31%, or a population of 584,692 (as of 2008).[citation needed]
Much of the dialog within China regarding minorities has generally portrayed minorities as being further behind the Han in progress toward modernization and modernity. Minority groups are often portrayed as rustic, wild, and antiquated. As the government often portrays itself as a benefactor of the minorities, those less willing to assimilate (despite the offers of assistance) are portrayed as masculine, violent, and unreasonable. Groups that have been depicted this way include the Tibetans, Uyghurs and the Mongols.[27] Groups that have been more willing to assimilate (and accept the help of the government) are often portrayed as feminine and sexual, including the Miao, Tujia and the Dai.[19]
Demographics[edit]
The largest ethnic group, Han, according to a 2005 sampling, constitute about 91.9% of the total population. The next largest ethnic groups in terms of population include the Zhuang (18 million), Manchu (10 million), Hui (10 million), Miao (9 million), Uyghur (8 million), Yi (7.8 million), Tujia (8 million), Mongols (5.8 million), Tibetans (5.4 million), Buyei (3 million), Yao (3.1 million), and Koreans (2.5 million). Minority populations have grown fast due to them being unaffected by the One Child Policy.[28]
List of ethnic groups[edit]
Ethnic minorities with low populations (fewer than 100,000 individuals) were not taken into account here.[29]
Ethnic Hans
Beijing Hans
Chongqing Hans
Gan Hans
Gansu Hans
Guizhou Hans
Hainan Hans
Hakka Hans
Hebei Hans
Heilongjiang Hans
Henan Hans
Hubei Hans
Jiaoliao Hans
Jilin & Liaoning Hans
Lower Yangtze Hans
Min Hans
Shaanxi Hans
Shandong Hans
Shanxi Hans
Sichuan Hans
Taiwan Hans
Tianjin Hans
Wu Hans
Xiang Hans
Yue Hans
Yunnan Hans
Ethnic minorities
Bai
Chinese Koreans
Dai
Dong
Evenki
Hani
Hui
Jingpo
Kazakhs
Kyrgyz
Lahu
Li
Lisu
Manchus
Maonan
Miao
Taiwanese indigenous people
Tajiks
Tibetans
Tujia
Uyghurs
Wa
Yao
Yi
Zhuang
Mongolian (sub)groups
Buryats
Chinese Mongols
Daurs
Khalka Mongols
Oirat Mongols
Undistinguished ethnic groups[edit]
Main article: Unrecognized ethnic groups in China
"Undistinguished" ethnic groups are ethnic groups that have not been officially recognized or classified by the central government. The group numbers more than 730,000 people, and would constitute the twentieth most populous ethnic group of China if taken as a single group. The vast majority of this group is found in Guizhou Province.[citation needed]
These "undistinguished ethnic groups" do not include groups that have been controversially classified into existing groups. For example, the Mosuo are officially classified as Naxi, and the Chuanqing are classified as Han Chinese, but they reject these classifications and view themselves as separate ethnic groups.
Citizens of mainland China who are of foreign origin are classified using yet another separate label: "foreigners naturalized into the Chinese citizenship" (外国人入中国籍). However, if a newly naturalized citizen already belongs to a recognized existing group among the 56 ethnic groups, then he or she is classified into that ethnic group rather than the special label.
Guarantee of rights and interests[edit]
Major Autonomous areas within Yunnan. (excluding Hui)
Major Autonomous areas within Guizhou. (excluding Hui)
Main article: Affirmative action in China
The PRC's Constitution and laws guarantee equal rights to all ethnic groups in China and help promote ethnic minority groups' economic and cultural development.[30] The constitution prohibits both discrimination and acts of disunity.[31] Articles 115 and 116 of the constitution state that in the provincial level autonomous regions and the autonomous prefectures and counties set aside for minority administration, local states via the local people's congresses "have the power to enact regulations on the exercise of autonomy and other separate regulations in the light of the political, economic, and cultural characteristics" of those areas.[31]
One notable preferential treatment ethnic minorities enjoy was their exemption from the population growth control of the One-Child Policy. But according to an investigative report by The Associated Press published at 28 June 2020, the Chinese government is taking draconian measures to slash birth rates among Uighurs and other minorities as part of a sweeping campaign to curb its Muslim population, even as it encourages some of the country's Han majority to have more children.[32]
While individual women have spoken out before about forced birth control, the practice is far more widespread and systematic than previously known, according to an AP investigation based on government statistics, state documents and interviews with 30 ex-detainees, family members and a former detention camp instructor. The campaign over the past four years in the far west region of Xinjiang is leading to what some experts are calling a form of "demographic genocide".[32] Ethnic minorities enjoy other special exemptions which vary by province- these include lower tax thresholds and lower required scores for entry into university. The use of these measures to raise ethnic minorities' human capital is seen by the central government as important for improving the economic development of ethnic minorities. Ethnic minorities are represented in the National People's Congress as well as governments at the provincial and prefectural levels. Some ethnic minorities in China live in what are described as ethnic autonomous areas. These "regional autonomies" guarantee ethnic minorities the freedom to use and develop their ethnic languages, and to maintain their own cultural and social customs. In addition, the PRC government has provided preferential economic development and aid to areas where ethnic minorities live. Furthermore, the Chinese government has allowed and encouraged the involvement of ethnic minority participation in the party. Even though ethnic minorities in China are granted specific rights and freedoms, many ethnic minorities still have headed towards the urban life in order to obtain a well paid job.[33]
Minorities have widely benefited from China's minimum livelihood guarantee program (known as the dibao) a programme introduced nationwide in 1999 whose number of participants had reached nearly twenty million by 2012. The nature of the selection process entails that the programme's providers be proactive and willing in seeking out impoverished prospective participants, as opposed to more comprehensive welfare schemes such as the Urban Resident Basic Medical Insurance Scheme (URBMI), which is universally implemented. As such, the selection process for participants in the dibao programme has generated a perception among observers of the scheme that this programme have been used to mitigate dissent and neutralize any threat to the government that could lead to unrest- including negative performance evaluations of local officials.[citation needed]
The Chinese government has committed a series of ongoing human rights abuses against Uyghurs and other ethnic and religious minorities in Xinjiang that is often characterized as Uyghurs genocide starting in 2014.
Religions and their most common affiliations[edit]
Buddhism/Taoism — the Miao (minority), Lisu (minority), Bai, Bulang, Dai, Jinuo, Jing, Jingpo, Mongol, Manchu, Naxi (including Mosuo), Nu, Tai, Tibetan, Zhuang (minority), Yi (minority), and Yugur ("Yellow Uyghurs").[34]
Eastern Orthodox Christianity — the Russians
Islam — the Hui, Uyghurs, Kazakhs, Dongxiang people, Kyrgyz people, Salar, Tajiks, Uzbeks, Bonans, and Tatars.[35]
Judaism — Kaifeng Jews
Protestant Christianity — the Lisu (70%; see Lisu Church)
Shamanism/Animism — Daur, Ewenkis, Oroqen, Hezhen, and Derung.
Ethnic Minority Representation in the leadership of the CCP[edit]
Since the People's Republic of China was established, ethnic minorities have made up around 10% of the Central Committee,[36][better source needed] whereas the rest of the members are of the Han Chinese ethnic group. That being said, a majority of the ethnic minority members of the Central Committee are alternate members.[36][better source needed] In the 19th Congress there are only 16 full time members who are ethnic minorities.[36][better source needed] While only 6 of the 55 ethnic minorities are represented in the Central Committee,[37] the percentage of ethnic minority members in the Central Committee exceeds the percentage of ethnic minority population in China. Ethnic minorities only make up roughly 7.5% of China's population, whereas 92% are Han Chinese,[38] the dominant ethnicity. Still the majority of ethnic minorities are severely underrepresented in the Central Committee.
A study conducted by three scholars in 2012, "Getting Ahead in the Communist Party: Explaining the Advancement of Central Committee Members", found that ethnic minorities had an advantage when being considered for promotion in Congress. They explain this phenomenon through the United Front policies that China has been engaged with since the Reform Era.[39] These policies attempt to promote stability and legitimacy among the ethnic minority population through concerted efforts to involve them in the country's politics . Thus the authors argue this is why ethnic minorities enjoyed an advantage in the Reform Period. Other scholars add that the Party is eager to include ethnic minorities in the government because of the backlash that China has faced from the rest of the world concerning the way they treated Tibet and most recently the Uyghurs in Xinjiang.[40] Including ethnic minorities in the Party's leadership adds to the "United Front" that China wants to portray.[41] Though they are included, it remains unclear as to what amount of influence they assert.[42]
See also[edit]
China portal
Affirmative action in China
Han Chinese subgroups
China National Ethnic Song and Dance Ensemble
Chinese nationality law
Demographics of the People's Republic of China and Taiwan
Demographics of China#Population density and distribution
Dzungar genocide
Ethnic groups in Chinese history
Ethnic issues in China
Graphic pejoratives in written Chinese
Human rights in China
List of Chinese administrative divisions by ethnic group
List of endangered languages in China
List of ethnic groups in China
Minzu University of China, a university in Beijing designated for ethnic minorities.
Secession in China
Sinocentrism
Taiwanese indigenous peoples
Unrecognized ethnic groups in China
Persecution of Uyghurs in China
Zhonghua minzu
References[edit]
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^ Wang Guanqun, ed. (28 April 2011). "Han Chinese proportion in China's population drops: census data". English.news.cn. Archived from the original on 2 May 2011.
^ a b c Binggao, Jin. [1987] 1988. "When Does The Word 'Minority Nationality' [Shaoshu Minzu] [First] Appear in Our Country?," translated by Tibet Information Network. Bulletin of the History of the Tibet Communist Party 1(19). p. 45 ff.
^ Chang, Ntxheb. "Conclusion: Splendid China and Being Minzu." Being Shaoshu Minzu in Contemporary China. US: Boston College. via Mediakron.
^ a b Moseley, George. "China's Fresh Approach to the National Minority Question." The China Quarterly.
^ a b Perry, Elizabeth J.; Selden, Mark, eds. (5 April 2010), "Alter/native Mongolian identity: From nationality to ethnic group", Chinese Society (0 ed.), Routledge, p. 284, doi:10.4324/9780203856314-17, ISBN 978-0-203-85631-4
^ Landis, Dan, and Rosita D. Albert. 2012. Handbook of Ethnic Conflict: International Perspectives. Springer. ISBN 978-1461404477. p. 182 (archived).
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^ Harrell, Stephan (1996). Cultural encounters on China's ethnic frontiers. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-97380-7.
^ Michaud J., 2009 Handling Mountain Minorities in China, Vietnam and Laos : From History to Current Issues. Asian Ethnicity 10(1): 25–49.
^ Blaut, J. M. (1987). "The Theory of National Minorities". The National Question: Decolonizing the Theory of Nationalism. London: Zed Books. ISBN 978-0-86232-439-1.
^ Ma, Rong (June 2010). "The Soviet Model's Influence and the Current Debate on Ethnic Relations". Global Asia.
^ a b American Asiatic Association (1940). Asia: journal of the American Asiatic Association, Volume 40. Asia Pub. Co. p. 660. Retrieved 8 May 2011.
^ Hartford Seminary Foundation (1941). The Moslem World, Volumes 31–34. Hartford Seminary Foundation. p. 182. Retrieved 8 May 2011.
^ Constitution of the People's Republic of China Archived 23 May 2006 at the Wayback Machine, 4 December 1982. Retrieved 27 February 2007.
^ Mullaney, Thomas (2010). "Seeing for the State: The Role of Social Scientists in China's Ethnic Classification Project". Asian Ethnicity. 11 (3): 325–342. doi:10.1080/14631369.2010.510874. S2CID 145787875.
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^ Mullaney, Thomas (2004). "Ethnic Classification Writ Large: The 1954 Yunnan Province Ethnic Classification Project and its Foundations in Republican-Era Taxonomic Thought". China Information. 18 (2): 207–241. doi:10.1177/0920203X04044685. S2CID 146596892.
^ a b Gladney, Dru C. (1994). "Representing Nationality in China: Refiguring Majority/Minority Identities". The Journal of Asian Studies. 53 (1): 92–123. doi:10.2307/2059528. JSTOR 2059528. S2CID 162540993.
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^ Oakes, Timothy S. (31 December 2017), Picard, Michel; Wood, Robert E. (eds.), "2. Ethnic Tourism in Rural Guizhou: Sense of Place and the Commerce of Authenticity", Tourism, Ethnicity, and the State in Asian and Pacific Societies, University of Hawaii Press, pp. 35–70, doi:10.1515/9780824865252-003, ISBN 978-0-8248-6525-2
^ Hillman, Ben (2003). "Paradise under Construction: Minorities, Myths and Modernity in Northwest Yunnan" (PDF). Asian Ethnicity. 4 (2): 177–190. doi:10.1080/14631360301654. S2CID 143987010.
^ Perry, Elizabeth J.; Selden, Mark; Uradyn Erden-Bulag. "Alter/native Mongolian identity: From nationality to ethnic group". Chinese Society: Change, conflict and resistance. Routledge. pp. 261–287. ISBN 978-0-203-85631-4.
^ a b Leibold, James. "Beyond Xinjiang: Xi Jinping's Ethnic Crackdown". thediplomat.com. The Diplomat. Retrieved 5 May 2021.
^ "Dismantling China's Muslim gulag in Xinjiang is not enough". The Economist. 9 January 2020. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 16 November 2020. A tiny minority have made their displeasure known violently. China has reacted by building a vast network of prison camps and tossing perhaps 1m Uighurs into it for "vocational training"
^ Xiaobing Li, and Patrick Fuliang Shan, Ethnic China: Identity, Assimilation and Resistance, Lexington and Rowman & Littlefield, 2015.
^ Hillman, Ben (2006). "Macho Minority: Masculinity and Ethnicity on the Edge of Tibet" (PDF). Modern China. 32 (2): 251–272. doi:10.1177/0097700405286186. S2CID 53869758. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 February 2016. Despite tremendous diversity among this broad and dubious ethnic category, the Han became the personification of the new nation and a symbol of modernity and progress. The new Communist Party leaders continued this project, presenting the Han peoples as the harbingers of modernity and progress, a beacon to the non- Han peoples of the political periphery who found themselves unwitting members of a new nation-state defined by clear borders (...) Ethnic minorities entered the national imagination as the primitive Other against which China's modern national identity could be constructed.
^ "MINORITIES IN CHINA | Facts and Details". Factsanddetails.com.
^ "China & Mongolia Regional DNA Project". Eupedia.
^ "Constitution of the People's Republic of China".
^ a b Lin, Chun (2006). The transformation of Chinese socialism. Durham [N.C.]: Duke University Press. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-8223-3785-0. OCLC 63178961.
^ a b AP’s global investigative team (28 June 2020). "China cuts Uighur births with IUDs, abortion, sterilization". Associated Press. Retrieved 1 August 2020.
^ Yardley, Jim (11 May 2008). "China Sticking With One-Child Policy". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 November 2008.
^ "Ethnic Groups". China.org.cn. Retrieved 7 March 2019.
^ Jackie Armijo (Winter 2006). "Islamic Education in China". Harvard Asia Quarterly. 10 (1). Archived from the original on 28 September 2007.
^ a b c "Periphery: Ethnic Minority Candidates for the 20th Central Committee". China-US Focus. 11 June 2022. Retrieved 22 September 2023.
^ "Who Rules China? Comparing Representation on the NPC and Central Committee". MacroPolo. Retrieved 22 September 2023.
^ Solis, Jacqueline. "LibGuides: Chinese Ethnic Groups: Overview Statistics". guides.lib.unc.edu. Retrieved 22 September 2023.
^ Shih, Victor; Adolph, Christopher; Liu, Mingxing (February 2012). "Getting Ahead in the Communist Party: Explaining the Advancement of Central Committee Members in China". American Political Science Review. 106 (1): 166–187. doi:10.1017/S0003055411000566. ISSN 0003-0554.
^ "Uyghurs | Human Rights Watch". www.hrw.org. Retrieved 22 September 2023.
^ Li, Cheng (2008). "Ethnic Minority Elites in China's Party-State Leadership". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ "How much of the NPC is composed of women and ethnic minorities?". South China Morning Post. 11 March 2021. Retrieved 22 September 2023.
Further reading[edit]
Tang, Wenfang and He, Gaochao. "Separate but Loyal: Ethnicity and Nationalism in China." Policy Studies 56. East–West Center.
China Ethnic Statistical Yearbook 2016
vteEthnic groups in ChinaUnderlined: the 56 recognized ethnic groupsSino-TibetanSinitic
Bai
Caijia
Chuanqing
Han
subgroups
Hui
Longjia
Waxiang
Lolo-Burmese
Achang
Akha
Bisu
Hani
Jino
Kucong
Lahu
Laomian
Laopin
Lisu
Mosuo
Nakhi
Nu
Qixingmin
Yi
Qiangic
Baima
Gyalrong
Pumi
Qiang
Tibetic
Monpa
Sherpa
Tibetan
Others
Deng
Derung
Jingpo
Lhoba
Tujia
Austroasiatic
Blang
Bolyu
Kunge
Khmu
Lai
Mang
Pakan
Ta'ang
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Wa
Austronesian
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Hmong
She
Yao
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Abaga
Abaganar
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Baarins
Buryats
Chahars
Gorlos
Jalaids
Jaruud
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Khishigten
Khorchin
Khuuchid
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Naimans
Oirats
Dzungar
Khoid
Khoshut
Olot
Torghut
Upper Mongols
Onnigud
Ordos
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Sunud
Urad
Monguor
Sogwo Arig
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Eastern
Kra–Dai
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Buyang
Dai
Tai Lue
Tai Nua
Dong
Gelao
Li
Maonan
Nùng
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Qabiao
Rau
Shan
Sui
Yang
Zhuang
Tungusic
Evenks
Solon
Manchus
Nanai
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Sibes
Turkic
Altaians
Äynu
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Salar
Tatar
Tuvans
Uyghurs
Uzbeks
Yugur
Western
Indo-European
Armenians
Iranians
Nepalis
Daman
Russians
Tajiks (Pamiris)
Wakhis
Others
African Chinese
Indians
Japanese
Jews
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Koreans (Chaoxianzu)
Macanese
Nivkhs
Pakistanis
Related
Han nationalism
chauvinism
Local ethnic nationalism
Minzu
Zhonghua minzu
Unrecognized ethnic groups in China
Immigrant ethnic groups in China
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vteEthnic groups in Asia Sovereign states
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Category
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vteEthnic minorities in AsiaSovereign states
Afghanistan
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Bahrain
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Brunei
Cambodia
China
Cyprus
East Timor (Timor-Leste)
Egypt
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India
Indonesia
Iran
Iraq
Israel
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
North Korea
South Korea
Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan
Laos
Lebanon
Malaysia
Maldives
Mongolia
Myanmar
Nepal
Oman
Pakistan
Philippines
Qatar
Russia
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
Sri Lanka
Syria
Tajikistan
Thailand
Turkey
Turkmenistan
United Arab Emirates
Uzbekistan
Vietnam
Yemen
States withlimited recognition
Abkhazia
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethnic_minorities_in_China&oldid=1210679801"
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1Officially recognized groups
2Taiwanese aborigines
3Unlisted ethnic groups
4Hong Kong and Macau
5Gallery
6See also
7References
8Further reading
9External links
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List of ethnic groups in China
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the ethnic groups in historical China, see Ethnic groups in Chinese history.
Ethnolinguistic map of China
China's Autonomous Regions and its Designated Ethnic Minority
The Han people are the largest ethnic group in mainland China. In 2010, 91.51% of the population were classified as Han (~1.2 billion).[1] Besides the Han Chinese majority, 55 other ethnic (minority) groups are categorized in present-day China, numbering approximately 105 million people (8%), mostly concentrated in the bordering northwest, north, northeast, south and southwest but with some in central interior areas.
The major ethnic minorities in China are the Zhuang (19.6 million), Uyghurs (11 million), Hui (11.4 million), Miao (11 million), Manchu (10.4 million), Yi (9.8 million), Tujia (9.6 million), Tibetans (7 million), Mongols (6.3 million), Buyei (3.5 million), Dong (3.5 million), Yao (3.3 million), Bai (2 million), Koreans (1.7 million), Hani (1.7 million), Li (1.6 million), Kazakhs (1.5 million), and Dai (1.2 million).[2] At least 126,000 people from Canada, the United States, and Europe are living in mainland China.[3] In addition, there are a number of unrecognized ethnic groups which together comprise over 730,000 people.
Officially recognized groups[edit]
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Officially recognized ethnic groups receive or have received certain benefits over Han Chinese under the regional ethnic autonomy system, including affirmative action, exemptions from the one-child policy, designated seats in political organs and government support to preserve their culture. Ethnic minority autonomous areas receive additional state subsidies.[4][5] Languages of officially recognized minorities are used in official government documents.[6]
Soon after the establishment of the People's Republic of China, 39 ethnic groups were recognized by the first national census in 1954. This further increased to 54 by the second national census in 1964, with the Lhoba group added in 1965. The last change was the addition of the Jino people in 1979, bringing the number of recognized ethnic groups to the current 56. The following are the 56 ethnic groups (listed by population) officially recognized by the People's Republic of China.[7]
English Name
Standard Romanization
CodeA
Simplified Chinese
Mandarin Pinyin
2020 National Shares
2020 PopulationB
2010 PopulationB
2000 PopulationB
1990 PopulationB
Year of recognitionC
Han1
Han
HA
汉族
Hànzú
91.1098%
1,284,446,389
1,220,844,520
1,139,773,008
1,042,482,187
1954
Zhuang
Zhuang
ZH
壮族
Zhuàngzú
1.3801%
19,568,546
16,926,381
16,187,163
15,489,630
1954
Uyghur
Uygur
UG
维吾尔族
Wéiwú'ěrzú
0.8352%
11,774,538
10,069,346
8,405,416
7,214,431
1954
Hui2
Hui
HU
回族
Huízú
0.8070%
11,377,914
10,586,087
9,828,126
8,602,978
1954
Miao3
Miao
MH
苗族
Miáozú
0.7851%
11,067,929
9,426,007
8,945,538
7,398,035
1954
Manchu
Man
MA
满族
Mǎnzú
0.7394%
10,423,303
10,387,958
10,708,464
9,821,180
1954
Yi
Yi
YI
彝族
Yízú
0.6973%
9,830,327
8,714,393
7,765,858
6,572,173
1954
Tujia
Tujia
TJ
土家族
Tǔjiāzú
0.6801%
9,587,732
8,353,912
8,037,014
5,704,223
1964
Tibetan4
Zang
ZA
藏族
Zàngzú
0.5008%
7,060,731
6,282,187
5,422,954
4,593,330
1954
Mongol
Mongol
MG
蒙古族
Měnggǔzú
0.4461%
6,290,204
5,981,840
5,827,808
4,806,849
1954
Bouyei
Bouyei
BY
布依族
Bùyīzú
0.2537%
3,576,752
2,870,034
2,973,217
2,545,059
1954
Dong5
Dong
DO
侗族
Dòngzú
0.2480%
3,495,993
2,879,974
2,962,911
2,514,014
1954
Yao
Yao
YA
瑶族
Yáozú
0.2347%
3,309,341
2,796,003
2,638,878
2,134,013
1954
Bai
Bai
BA
白族
Báizú
0.1484%
2,091,543
1,933,510
1,861,895
1,594,827
1954
Hani6
Hani
HN
哈尼族
Hānízú
0.1229%
1,733,166
1,660,932
1,440,029
1,253,952
1954
Korean
Chosŏn
CS
朝鲜族
Cháoxiǎnzú
0.1207%
1,702,479
1,830,929
1,929,696
1,920,597
1954
Li
Li
LI
黎族
Lízú
0.1136%
1,602,104
1,463,064
1,248,022
1,110,900
1954
Kazakh
Kazak
KZ
哈萨克族
Hāsàkèzú
0.1108%
1,562,518
4,447,588
4,251,023
3,111,718
1954
Dai7
Dai
DA
傣族
Dǎizú
0.0943%
1,329,985
1,261,311
1,159,231
1,025,128
1954
Lisu
Lisu
LS
傈僳族
Lìsùzú
0.0541%
762,296
702,839
635,101
574,856
1954
She
She
SH
畲族
Shēzú
0.0529%
746,385
708,651
710,039
630,378
1964
Dongxiang
Dongxiang
DX
东乡族
Dōngxiāngzú
0.0550%
774,947
621,500
513,826
373,872
1954
Gelao
Gelao
GL
仡佬族
Gēlǎozú
0.0481%
677,521
550,746
579,744
437,997
1964
Lahu
Lahu
LH
拉祜族
Lāhùzú
0.0354%
499,167
485,966
453,765
411,476
1954
Sui
Sui
SU
水族
Shuǐzú
0.0352%
495,928
411,847
407,000
345,993
1954
Wa
Wa
WA
佤族
Wǎzú
0.0306%
430,997
429,709
396,709
351,974
1954
Nakhi8
Naxi
NX
纳西族
Nàxīzú
0.0230%
323,767
326,295
309,477
278,009
1954
Qiang
Qiang
QI
羌族
Qiāngzú
0.0222%
312,981
309,576
306,476
198,252
1954
Tu
Tu
TU
土族
Tǔzú
0.0200%
281,928
289,565
241,593
191,624
1954
Mulao9
Mulao
ML
仫佬族
Mùlǎozú
0.0197%
277,233
216,257
207,464
159,328
1964
Kyrgyz
Kirgiz
KG
柯尔克孜族
Kē'ěrkèzīzú
0.0145%
204,402
186,708
160,875
141,549
1954
Xibe
Xibe
XB
锡伯族
Xībózú
0.0136%
191,911
190,481
189,357
172,847
1954
Salar
Salar
SL
撒拉族
Sālāzú
0.0117%
165,159
130,607
104,521
87,697
1954
Jingpo10
Jingpo
JP
景颇族
Jǐngpōzú
0.0114%
160,471
147,828
132,158
119,209
1954
Daur
Daur
DU
达斡尔族
Dáwò'ěrzú
0.0094%
132,299
131,992
132,747
121,357
1964
Blang
Blang
BL
布朗族
Bùlǎngzú
0.0090%
127,345
119,639
91,891
82,280
1964
Maonan11
Maonan
MN
毛南族
Máonánzú
0.0088%
124,092
101,192
107,184
71,968
1964
Tajik12
Tajik
TA
塔吉克族
Tǎjíkèzú
0.0036%
50,896
51,069
41,056
33,538
1954
Pumi
Pumi
PM
普米族
Pǔmǐzú
0.0032%
45,012
42,861
33,628
29,657
1964
Achang
Achang
AC
阿昌族
Āchāngzú
0.0031%
43,775
39,555
33,954
27,708
1964
Nu
Nu
NU
怒族
Nùzú
0.0026%
36,575
37,523
28,770
27,123
1964
Evenki
Ewenki
EW
鄂温克族
Èwēnkèzú
0.0025%
34,617
30,875
30,545
26,315
1954
Vietnamese13
Gin
GI
京族
Jīngzú
0.0024%
33,112
28,199
22,584
18,915
1964
Jino
Jino
JN
基诺族
Jīnuòzú
0.0018%
26,025
23,143
20,899
18,021
1979
Bonan
Bonan
BO
保安族
Bǎo'ānzú
0.0017%
24,434
20,074
16,505
12,212
1954
De'ang14
Deang
DE
德昂族
Dé'ángzú
0.0016%
22,354
20,556
17,935
15,462
1964
Russian
Russ
RS
俄罗斯族
Éluósīzú
0.0011%
16,136
15,393
15,631
13,504
1954
Yugur
Yugur
YG
裕固族
Yùgùzú
0.0010%
14,706
14,378
13,747
12,297
1954
Uzbek
Uzbek
UZ
乌孜别克族
Wūzībiékèzú
0.0009%
12,742
10,569
12,423
14,502
1954
Monba
Monba
MB
门巴族
Ménbāzú
0.0008%
11,143
10,561
8,928
7,475
1964
Oroqen
Oroqen
OR
鄂伦春族
Èlúnchūnzú
0.0007%
9,168
8,659
8,216
6,965
1954
Derung
Derung
DR
独龙族
Dúlóngzú
0.0005%
7,310
6,930
7,431
5,816
1964
Hezhen15
Hezhen
HZ
赫哲族
Hèzhézú
0.0004%
5,373
5,354
4,664
4,245
1964
Lhoba
Lhoba
LB
珞巴族
Luòbāzú
0.0003%
4,237
3,682
2,970
2,312
1965
Tatars
Tatar
TT
塔塔尔族
Tǎtǎ'ěrzú
0.0003%
3,544
3,556
4,895
4,873
1954
Gaoshan16
Gaoshan
GS
高山族
Gāoshānzú
0.0002%
3,479
4,009
4,488
2,909
1954
Undistinguished
—
none
未识别民族
Wèi Shìbié Mínzú
0.0593%
836,488
640,101
734,438
749,341
—
Naturalized Citizen
—
none
外国人加入中国籍
Wàiguórén Jiārù Zhōngguójí
0.0012%
16,595
1,448
941
3,421
—
AGB 3304-91 "Names of ethnicities of China in romanization with codes";[8]
BThe population only includes mainland China;
CFor ethnic groups officially recognised in 1964 or earlier, this is the year of first inclusion in the national census, which were in 1954[9] and 1964;[10]
1Also included are the Chuanqing;
2Also includes Utsuls of Hainan, descended from Cham refugees;
3One subset of which is also known as Hmong and other include Hmu, Xong and A-Hmao. Some of the related languages and groups of peoples are not necessarily classified under the Miao umbrella, which makes this term somewhat vague;
4including Amdowa and Khampa, as well as roughly half of Pumi speakers, the remainder of whom are classified as a separate Pumi ethnicity;
5Also known as Kam;
6Also included are the Sangkong;
7This category includes several different Tai-speaking groups historically referred to as Bai-yi. In fact, the Dai nationality consists of speakers of varieties of Shan languages. For instance, the Tai Lue and Tai Nuea peoples are actually subgroups of the Shan people. Despite this, speakers of Bumang are also included in the Dai nationality;
8Also included are the Mosuo;
9Also included are the Qago (木佬人);
10Known as Kachin in Myanmar;
11Also included are the Then;
12They are not Tajik people but Pamiri people;
13The same group as Vietnamese or Kinh people in Sino-Vietnamese;
14Known as Palaung in Myanmar;
15The same group as Nanai on the Russian side of the border;
16A collective name for all Taiwanese aborigine groups in Taiwan. In fact, the numbers of Gaoshan in census covers only those who lives in mainland China (mainly in Fujian) and consists of Amis (autonym: Pangcah), Paiwan and Bunun peoples.[citation needed]
Taiwanese aborigines[edit]
Main article: Taiwanese indigenous peoples
The People's Republic of China government officially refers to all Taiwanese aborigines (Chinese: 原住民族; pinyin: Yuánzhùmínzú) as Gaoshan (Chinese: 高山族; pinyin: Gāoshānzú), whereas the Republic of China (Taiwan) recognizes 16 groups of Taiwanese aborigines.[11] The term Gaoshan has a different connotation in Taiwan than it does in mainland China.[clarification needed]
Unlisted ethnic groups[edit]
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Main article: Unrecognized ethnic groups in China
Part of a poster in Beijing showing the 56 ethnic groups of China
The following ethnic groups living in China are not recognized by the Chinese government:
Äynu people – classified as Uyghurs
Altai people – classified as Mongols[12]
Fuyu Kyrgyz people – classified as Kyrgyz
Gejia people – classified as Miao
Bajia (八甲人; Bājiǎrén)
Deng people
Hu people – classified as Bulang
Khmu people – classified as Bulang
Kucong
Mảng people
Ili Turk people – classified as Uzbek
Sherpa people – classified as Tibetan
Tanka people, including Fuzhou Tanka
Tebbu people
Tuvans – classified as Mongols[13]
Waxiang people
Jewish people
Macanese people, mixed race Catholic Portuguese speakers who lived in Macau since 16th century of various ethnic origins
Utsuls – classified as Hui
During the Fifth National Population Census of the People's Republic of China held in 2000, 734,438 people on the mainland were recorded as belonging to "undistinguished ethnic groups"—of these, 97% resided in Guizhou, .[14]
Hong Kong and Macau[edit]
See also: Demographics of Hong Kong and Demographics of Macau
Hong Kong and Macau are special administrative regions within China. The governments of Hong Kong and Macau do not use the official PRC ethnic classification system, nor does the PRC's official classification system take ethnic groups in Hong Kong and Macau into account. Minority groups such as Western Europeans (mainly English and Portuguese), and Southern or Southeastern Asians (mainly Filipinos, Indians, Indonesians, Nepalese, and Pakistanis) live in Hong Kong.[15] Macau's main ethnic groups are of Chinese and Portuguese descent, but other ethnicities also live in the territory.[16]
Gallery[edit]
Han
Zhuang
Manchu
Hui
Miao
Uyghur
Tujia
Yi
Mongol
See also[edit]
China portal
Affirmative action in China
Demographics of China
Demographics of Taiwan
Local ethnic nationalism
Taiwanese people
Ethnic minorities in China
Han Chinese subgroups
Hua–Yi distinction
Languages of China
List of endangered languages in China
Kra–Dai ethnic groups in China
Taiwanese indigenous peoples
Unrecognized ethnic groups in China
Minzu (anthropology)
Zhonghua minzu
References[edit]
^ "Han Chinese proportion in China's population drops: census data". Xinhua News (English). 28 April 2011. Archived from the original on 11 July 2016. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
^ "index". www.stats.gov.cn.
^ "Expats in China: Nationalities and in which cities they settle".
^ Jarmuth, Anna (2020-09-22). "Ethnic Minorities and the Fight against Poverty in China: The Case of Yunnan". Institute for Security and Development Policy. Retrieved 2023-10-19.
^ Lai, Hongyi. "China's Ethnic Policies and Challenges" (PDF).
^ "White Paper 1999: Ethnic Minorities Policy in China". un.china-mission.gov.cn. Retrieved 2023-10-19.
^ 胡鸿保; 张丽梅 (2009). 民族识别原则的变化与民族人口 [Changes in Ethnic Identification Principles and Ethnic Population]. Southwest University for Nationalities University Press (in Chinese) (4).
^ GB 3304-91 Names of nationalities of China in romanization with codes Archived 2009-11-01 at the Wayback Machine.
^ First National Population Census of the People's Republic of China
^ Second National Population Census of the People's Republic of China
^ "Gov't officially recognizes two more aboriginal people groups". China Post. CNA. 27 June 2014. Archived from the original on 11 November 2014. Retrieved 13 December 2014.
^ Olson, James S. (1998). "Altai". An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of China. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. pp. 9–11. ISBN 0-313-28853-4.
^ Mongush, M. V. (1996). "Tuvans of Mongolia and China". International Journal of Central Asian Studies (1): 225–243.
^ 第五次人口普查数据(2000年). 表1—6. 省、自治区、直辖市分性别、民族的人口 ( Fifth National Population Census of the People's Republic of China (2000). Table 1-6: Population of provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities by ethnicity). (in Chinese)
^ Paul O'Connor (2018). "Ethnic Minorities and Ethnicity in Hong Kong". Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Hong Kong. Routledge. pp. 59–274. ISBN 9780367580605.
^ João de Pina Cabral. "THE 'ETHNIC' COMPOSITION OF MACAO". Cultural Bureau of Macau. Retrieved 2023-11-29.
Further reading[edit]
Olson, James S. (1998). An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of China. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-28853-4.
Schwars, Henry G. (1984). The Minorities of Northern China: A Survey.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ethnic groups in China.
"Chinese ethnic odyssey" - collection of articles from the People's Daily
Family album of Chinese 56 ethnic groups
nytimes.com
Map share of ethnic by county of China
Map share of dominate ethnic by county of China
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ethnic group, a social group or category of the population that, in a larger society, is set apart and bound together by common ties of race, language, nationality, or culture.Ethnic diversity is one form of the social complexity found in most contemporary societies. Historically it is the legacy of conquests that brought diverse peoples under the rule of a dominant group; of rulers who in their own interests imported peoples for their labour or their technical and business skills; of industrialization, which intensified the age-old pattern of migration for economic reasons; or of political and religious persecutions that drove people from their native lands.
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United States: Ethnic European Americans
Until the 20th century ethnic diversity posed no great problems for empires. Its chief historic significance has been and remains its relationship to the nation-state, whose primary goal is political unity, which tends to be identified with social unity. In theory, the nation-state and ethnic diversity are diametrically opposed, and on many occasions nation-states have attempted to solve the problem of ethnic diversity by the elimination or expulsion of ethnic groups—notable examples being the Nazi policy against the Jews during World War II, the expulsion of the Moors and Jews from 15th-century Spain, or the expulsion of the Arabs and East Indians from several newly independent African countries in the 1960s and ’70s.More common solutions have been assimilation or acculturation, whether forced, induced, or voluntary. Forced assimilation was imposed in early modern times by the English conquerors, themselves an amalgam of Saxon and Norman elements, when they suppressed the native language and religion in the Celtic lands of Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. Similar methods were employed by their French contemporaries as they extended their conquests into the langue d’oc region of southern Europe. Through considerably less brutal methods, the Chinese ethnic groups in Thailand and Indonesia have been legally induced to adopt the dominant culture through a process called “directed acculturation.”A variant of this process has been the more or less voluntary assimilation achieved in the United States under the rubric of “Americanization.” This is largely a result of the unusual opportunities for social and economic mobility in the United States and of the fact that for the European ethnic groups, in contrast to the racial minorities, residence in the United States was a matter of individual or familial choice, not conquest or slavery. But both public policy and public opinion also contributed to American assimilation.Another way of dealing with ethnic diversity, one that holds more promise for the future, is the development of some form of pluralism, which usually rests on a combination of toleration, interdependence, and separatism. One of the most notable long-term solutions has been that of Switzerland, where the three major ethnic groups are concentrated in separate cantons, each enjoying a large measure of local control within a democratic federation. Another, less stable federal pluralism is found in Canada, where the French Catholic province of Quebec is increasingly assertive about its desire for complete independence and forced acculturation of its own ethnic minorities.
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The political function of ethnicity is more important today than ever, as a result of the spread of doctrines of freedom, self-determination, and democracy throughout the world. In 19th-century Europe, these doctrines influenced various movements for the liberation of ethnic minorities from the old European empires and led to some partially successful attempts to establish nation-states along ethnic lines, as in the case of Poland and Italy. After World War II the rising tide of democratic aspirations among the colonial peoples of Asia and Africa led to the breakup of empires established by European conquerors, sometimes in areas of enormous ethnic complexity, without regard to ethnic considerations. The result was a proliferation of national states, some of which experienced local conflicts with ethnic-related causes. Most of the new countries in Asia were relatively homogeneous, but the majority of those in sub-Saharan Africa were composed of many relatively small ethnic groups whose members spoke different languages.
This article was most recently revised and updated by Elizabeth Prine Pauls.
Ethnicity and Minority Nationalities Since 1949 - Chinese Studies - Oxford Bibliographies
Ethnicity and Minority Nationalities Since 1949 - Chinese Studies - Oxford Bibliographies
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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Ethnicity and Minority Nationalities Since 1949
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Ethnicity and Minority Nationalities Since 1949
byColin MackerrasLAST REVIEWED: 08 June 2017LAST MODIFIED: 24 July 2018DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199920082-0012
IntroductionThis article covers works about ethnicity in the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and minority nationalities since 1949 with an emphasis on the reform period since 1978. The Chinese state still follows Joseph Stalin’s definition of an ethnic group (Ch. minzu 民族), given in 1913, as “a historically constituted community of people, having a common territory, a common language, a common economic life and a common psychological makeup which expresses itself in a common culture” (Stalin, “Marxism and the National Question,” in Works, Vol. 2 [Moscow: Foreign Languages, 1953], p. 307). Under this definition, the Chinese state recognizes fifty-six ethnic groups in China—the majority Han and fifty-five minority nationalities (shaoshu minzu 少数民族, often also translated “ethnic minorities”). According to the 2010 census, which included only the mainland of China, not Hong Kong, Macao, or Taiwan, 8.49 percent of China’s population belonged to the fifty-five minorities, a total of 113,792,211 persons, while the Han were 91.51 percent. Although the minorities are thus only a small proportion of China’s total population, the territory they inhabit is about 60 percent of the mainland and includes most of the border areas, some of them extremely sensitive. For this reason, they are politically and strategically much more important than their numbers might suggest. Many of the minorities are quite similar to the Han in language and culture, but others are quite different both from the Han and from one another. Most speak Sino-Tibetan languages, which are thus related to Chinese, but others speak Altaic (including Turkic) languages, and a few speak languages belonging to other families. In terms of religion, the minorities are also very diverse, with the best-known internationally being Islam and the characteristic Buddhism of the Tibetans. As China has strengthened over the past decades, the issue of ethnic identity has become more important, while the Chinese state has insisted on its own territorial integrity and thus resisted all separatist movements with all the force at its command. The members of most minority nationalities are quite willing to integrate or even assimilate with the dominant Han and with the Chinese state. However, others have seen strong resistance movements; the outstanding examples are the Tibetans and the Uighurs, the latter being Muslims and Turkic. (This ethnonym is also spelled Uyghurs or Uygurs, but for consistency’s sake this article adopts the spelling “Uighurs” except in titles of works, in which case the original spelling is preserved.) Disturbances among these two ethnic groups have occurred periodically and, especially in the case of the Tibetans, they have created an international issue that bears not only on human rights but even on the status of Tibet.General OverviewsThe 1950s and 1960s saw the publication in China of numerous ethnographies and histories of ethnic minorities, almost all with the main focus on social and economic formations or pre-1949 history. Though based exclusively on the framework imposed by Joseph Stalin’s definition cited in the Introduction, the information they provided was extraordinarily rich and useful at a time when field research by Western scholars was all but impossible. There was also extensive work undertaken to identify the various ethnic minorities and their characteristics. Chinese ethnological scholarship was totally interrupted by the Cultural Revolution (from 1966 to 1976), but it became even more voluminous in the 1980s than it had been in the 1950s and 1960s, persisting into the 1990s and the 21st century. However, during the 1980s it became possible for non-Chinese scholars, especially anthropologists, not only to travel in the minority areas but also to carry out fieldwork there. Some of the literature deals with specific ethnic minorities, but there are also works considering some or all of the fifty-five recognized ethnic minorities as a collective whole. A very popular theme is the emergence of ethnic identity. Relations between ethnic minorities and the Han have changed greatly since reform, with ethnic identity and globalization pointing in opposite directions. Two ethnic groups that attract a substantial literature stemming from various factors, including strengthened ethnic identity and periodic disturbances aiming at independence or greater autonomy, are the Tibetans and the Uighurs, who, however, are also frequently considered in general works.
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Two ladies of ethnic minority groups [Photo by Chen Boyuan/China.org.cn]China is a unified nation consisting of many different ethnic groups. Fifty-six different ethnic groups make up the great Chinese national family. Because the Han people accounts for more than ninety percent of China's population, the remaining fifty-five groups are generally referred to as "ethnic minorities." Next to the majority Han, the Mongolian, Hui, Tibetan, and Uygur peoples comprise the largest ethnic groups. Although China's ethnic minorities do not account for a large portion of the population, they are distributed over a vast area, residing in every corner of China.Particularly since the implementation of China's opening and reform policy, the central government has increased investment in minority areas and accelerated their opening to the outside world. This has resulted in an upsurge of economic development in these areas. Each of China's ethnic minority groups possesses a distinctive culture. The Chinese government respects minority customs, and works to preserve, study, and collate the cultural artifacts of China's ethnic minority groups. The government vigorously supports the development of minority culture and the training of minority cultural workers, and fosters the development of traditional minority medicine.The relation among China's ethnic groups can be described as "overall integration, local concentration, mutual interaction." Concentrations of ethnic minorities reside within predominantly Han areas, and the Han people also reside in minority areas, indicating that there has been extensive exchanges among China's ethnic groups since ancient times. With the development of the market economy, interaction among ethnic groups has become even more active in the areas of government, economics, culture, daily life, and marriage. Linked by interdependence, mutual assistance, and joint development, their common goals and interests creating a deep sense of solidarity, China's ethnic groups resemble a great national family, together building Chinese civilization.
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11.1 Racial, Ethnic, and Minority Groups - Introduction to Sociology 3e | OpenStax
Racial, Ethnic, and Minority Groups - Introduction to Sociology 3e | OpenStaxSkip to ContentGo to accessibility pageKeyboard shortcuts menuIntroduction to Sociology 3e11.1 Racial, Ethnic, and Minority GroupsIntroduction to Sociology 3e11.1 Racial, Ethnic, and Minority GroupsSearchSearchCloseSearchContentsContentsHighlightsPrintTable of contentsPreface1
An Introduction to SociologyIntroduction1.1 What Is Sociology?1.2 The History of Sociology1.3 Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology1.4 Why Study Sociology?Key TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences2
Sociological ResearchIntroduction2.1 Approaches to Sociological Research2.2 Research Methods2.3 Ethical ConcernsKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences3
CultureIntroduction3.1 What Is Culture?3.2 Elements of Culture3.3 High, Low, Pop, Sub, Counter-culture and Cultural Change3.4 Theoretical Perspectives on CultureKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences4
Society and Social InteractionIntroduction4.1 Types of Societies4.2 Theoretical Perspectives on Society4.3 Social Constructions of RealityKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences5
SocializationIntroduction5.1 Theories of Self-Development5.2 Why Socialization Matters5.3 Agents of Socialization5.4 Socialization Across the Life CourseKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences6
Groups and OrganizationIntroduction6.1 Types of Groups6.2 Group Size and Structure6.3 Formal OrganizationsKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences7
Deviance, Crime, and Social ControlIntroduction7.1 Deviance and Control7.2 Theoretical Perspectives on Deviance and Crime7.3 Crime and the LawKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences8
Media and TechnologyIntroduction8.1 Technology Today8.2 Media and Technology in Society8.3 Global Implications of Media and Technology8.4 Theoretical Perspectives on Media and TechnologyKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences9
Social Stratification in the United StatesIntroduction9.1 What Is Social Stratification?9.2 Social Stratification and Mobility in the United States9.3 Global Stratification and Inequality9.4 Theoretical Perspectives on Social StratificationKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences10
Global InequalityIntroduction10.1 Global Stratification and Classification10.2 Global Wealth and Poverty10.3 Theoretical Perspectives on Global StratificationKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences11
Race and EthnicityIntroduction11.1 Racial, Ethnic, and Minority Groups11.2 Theoretical Perspectives on Race and Ethnicity11.3 Prejudice, Discrimination, and Racism11.4 Intergroup Relationships11.5 Race and Ethnicity in the United StatesKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences12
Gender, Sex, and SexualityIntroduction12.1 Sex, Gender, Identity, and Expression12.2 Gender and Gender Inequality12.3 SexualityKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences13
Aging and the ElderlyIntroduction13.1 Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society13.2 The Process of Aging13.3 Challenges Facing the Elderly13.4 Theoretical Perspectives on AgingKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences14
Relationships, Marriage, and FamilyIntroduction14.1 What Is Marriage? What Is a Family?14.2 Variations in Family Life14.3 Challenges Families FaceKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences15
ReligionIntroduction15.1 The Sociological Approach to Religion15.2 World Religions15.3 Religion in the United StatesKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences16
EducationIntroduction16.1 Education around the World16.2 Theoretical Perspectives on Education16.3 Issues in EducationKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences17
Government and PoliticsIntroduction17.1 Power and Authority17.2 Forms of Government17.3 Politics in the United States17.4 Theoretical Perspectives on Government and PowerKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences18
Work and the EconomyIntroduction to Work and the Economy18.1 Economic Systems18.2 Globalization and the Economy18.3 Work in the United StatesKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences19
Health and MedicineIntroduction19.1 The Social Construction of Health19.2 Global Health19.3 Health in the United States19.4 Comparative Health and Medicine19.5 Theoretical Perspectives on Health and MedicineKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences20
Population, Urbanization, and the EnvironmentIntroduction20.1 Demography and Population20.2 Urbanization20.3 The Environment and SocietyKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences21
Social Movements and Social ChangeIntroduction to Social Movements and Social Change21.1 Collective Behavior21.2 Social Movements21.3 Social ChangeKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerReferencesAnswer KeyChapter 1Chapter 2Chapter 3Chapter 4Chapter 5Chapter 6Chapter 7Chapter 8Chapter 9Chapter 10Chapter 11Chapter 12Chapter 13Chapter 14Chapter 15Chapter 16Chapter 17Chapter 18Chapter 19Chapter 20Chapter 21IndexLearning ObjectivesBy the end of this section, you should be able to:
Understand the difference between race and ethnicity
Define a majority group (dominant group)
Define a minority group (subordinate group)
While many students first entering a sociology classroom are accustomed to conflating the terms “race,” “ethnicity,” and “minority group,” these three terms have distinct meanings for sociologists. The idea of race refers to superficial physical differences that a particular society considers significant, while ethnicity describes shared culture. And the term "minority groups" describe groups that are subordinate, or that lack power in society regardless of skin color or country of origin. For example, in modern U.S. history, the elderly might be considered a minority group due to a diminished status that results from popular prejudice and discrimination against them. Ten percent of nursing home staff admitted to physically abusing an elderly person in the past year, and 40 percent admitted to committing psychological abuse (World Health Organization 2011). In this chapter we focus on racial and ethnic minorities.
What Is Race?
A human race is a grouping of humankind based on shared physical or social qualities that can vary from one society to another.
Historically, the concept of race has changed across cultures and eras, and has eventually become less connected with ancestral and familial ties, and more concerned with superficial physical characteristics. In the past, theorists developed categories of race based on various geographic regions, ethnicities, skin colors, and more. Their labels for racial groups have connoted regions or skin tones, for example.
German physician, zoologist, and anthropologist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752-1840) introduced one of the famous groupings by studying human skulls. Blumenbach divided humans into five races (MacCord 2014):
Caucasian or White race: people of European, Middle Eastern, and North African origin
Ethiopian or Black race: people of sub-Saharan Africans origin (sometimes spelled Aethiopian)
Malayan or Brown race: people of Southeast Asian origin and Pacific Islanders
Mongolian or Yellow race: people of all East Asian and some Central Asian origin
American or Red race: people of North American origin or American Indians
Over time, descriptions of race like Blumenbach's have fallen into disuse, and the social construction of race is a more accepted way of understanding racial categories. Social science organizations including the American Association of Anthropologists, the American Sociological Association, and the American Psychological Association have all officially rejected explanations of race like those listed above. Research in this school of thought suggests that race is not biologically identifiable and that previous racial categories were based on pseudoscience; they were often used to justify racist practices (Omi and Winant 1994; Graves 2003). For example, some people used to think that genetics of race determined intelligence. While this idea was mostly put to rest in the later 20th Century, it resurged several times in the past 50 years, including the widely read and cited 1994 book, The Bell Curve. Researchers have since provided substantial evidence that refutes a biological-racial basis for intelligence, including the widespread closing of IQ gaps as Black people gained more access to education (Dickens 2006). This research and other confirming studies indicate that any generally lower IQ among a racial group was more about nurture than nature, to put it into the terms of the Socialization chapter.
While many of the historical considerations of race have been corrected in favor of more accurate and sensitive descriptions, some of the older terms remain. For example, it is generally unacceptable and insulting to refer to Asian people or Native American people with color-based terminology, but it is acceptable to refer to White and Black people in that way. In 2020, a number of publications announced that they would begin capitalizing the names of races, though not everyone used the same approach (Seipel 2020). This practice comes nearly a hundred years after sociologist and leader W.E.B. Du Bois drove newsrooms to capitalize "Negro," the widely used term at the time. And, finally, some members of racial groups (or ethnic groups, which are described below) "reclaim" terms previously used to insult them (Rao 2018). These examples are more evidence of the social construction of race, and our evolving relationships among people and groups.
What Is Ethnicity?
Ethnicity is sometimes used interchangeably with race, but they are very different concepts. Ethnicity is based on shared culture—the practices, norms, values, and beliefs of a group that might include shared language, religion, and traditions, among other commonalities. Like race, the term ethnicity is difficult to describe and its meaning has changed over time. And as with race, individuals may be identified or self-identify with ethnicities in complex, even contradictory, ways. For example, ethnic groups such as Irish, Italian American, Russian, Jewish, and Serbian might all be groups whose members are predominantly included in the “White” racial category. Ethnicity, like race, continues to be an identification method that individuals and institutions use today—whether through the census, diversity initiatives, nondiscrimination laws, or simply in personal day-to-day relations.
In some cases, ethnicity is incorrectly used as a synonym for national origin, but those constructions are technically different. National origin (itself sometimes confused with nationality) has to do with the geographic and political associations with a person's birthplace or residence. But people from a nation can be of a wide range of ethnicities, often unknown to people outside of the region, which leads to misconceptions. For example, someone in the United States may, with no ill-intent, refer to all Vietnamese people as an ethnic group. But Vietnam is home to 54 formally recognized ethnic groups.
Adding to the complexity: Sometimes, either to build bridges between ethnic groups, promote civil rights, gain recognition, or other reasons, diverse but closely associated ethnic groups may develop a "pan-ethnic" group. For example, the various ethnic groups and national origins of people from Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, and adjoining nations, who may share cultural, linguistic, or other values, may group themselves together in a collective identity. If they do so, they may not seek to erase their individual ethnicities, but finding the correct description and association can be challenging and depend on context. The large number of people who make up the Asian American community may embrace their collective identity in the context of the United States. However, that embrace may depend on people's ages, and may be expressed differently when speaking to different populations (Park 2008). For example, someone who identifies as Asian American while at home in Houston may not refer to themselves as such when they visit extended family in Japan. In a similar manner, a grouping of people from Mexico, Central America and South America—often referred to as Latinx, Latina, or Latino—may be embraced by some and rejected by others in the group (Martinez 2019).
What Are Minority Groups?
Sociologist Louis Wirth (1945) defined a minority group as “any group of people who, because of their physical or cultural characteristics, are singled out from the others in the society in which they live for differential and unequal treatment, and who therefore regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination.” The term minority connotes discrimination, and in its sociological use, the term subordinate group can be used interchangeably with the term minority group, while the term dominant group is often substituted for the group that represents rulers or is in the majority who can access power and privilege in a given society. These definitions correlate to the concept that the dominant group is that which holds the most power in a given society, while subordinate groups are those who lack power compared to the dominant group.
Note that being a numerical minority is not a characteristic of being a minority group; sometimes larger groups can be considered minority groups due to their lack of power. It is the lack of power that is the predominant characteristic of a minority, or subordinate group. For example, consider apartheid in South Africa, in which a numerical majority (the Black inhabitants of the country) were exploited and oppressed by the White minority.
According to Charles Wagley and Marvin Harris (1958), a minority group is distinguished by five characteristics: (1) unequal treatment and less power over their lives, (2) distinguishing physical or cultural traits like skin color or language, (3) involuntary membership in the group, (4) awareness of subordination, and (5) high rate of in-group marriage. Additional examples of minority groups might include the LGBTQ community, religious practitioners whose faith is not widely practiced where they live, and people with disabilities.
Scapegoat theory, developed initially from Dollard’s (1939) Frustration-Aggression theory, suggests that the dominant group will displace its unfocused aggression onto a subordinate group. History has shown us many examples of the scapegoating of a subordinate group. An example from the last century is the way Adolf Hitler blamed the Jewish population for Germany’s social and economic problems. In the United States, recent immigrants have frequently been the scapegoat for the nation’s—or an individual’s—woes. Many states have enacted laws to disenfranchise immigrants; these laws are popular because they let the dominant group scapegoat a subordinate group.
Multiple Identities
Figure
11.2
Golfer Tiger Woods has Chinese, Thai, African American, Native American, and Dutch heritage. Individuals with multiple ethnic backgrounds are becoming more common. (Credit: familymwr/flickr)
Prior to the twentieth century, racial intermarriage (referred to as miscegenation) was extremely rare, and in many places, illegal. While the sexual subordination of enslaved people did result in children of mixed race, these children were usually considered Black, and therefore, property. There was no concept of multiple racial identities with the possible exception of the Creole. Creole society developed in the port city of New Orleans, where a mixed-race culture grew from French and African inhabitants. Unlike in other parts of the country, “Creoles of color” had greater social, economic, and educational opportunities than most African Americans.
Increasingly during the modern era, the removal of miscegenation laws and a trend toward equal rights and legal protection against racism have steadily reduced the social stigma attached to racial exogamy (exogamy refers to marriage outside a person’s core social unit). It is now common for the children of racially mixed parents to acknowledge and celebrate their various ethnic identities. Golfer Tiger Woods, for instance, has Chinese, Thai, African American, Native American, and Dutch heritage; he jokingly refers to his ethnicity as “Cablinasian,” a term he coined to combine several of his ethnic backgrounds. While this is the trend, it is not yet evident in all aspects of our society. For example, the U.S. Census only recently added additional categories for people to identify themselves, such as non-White Hispanic. A growing number of people chose multiple races to describe themselves on the 2020 Census, indicating that individuals have multiple identities.
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