tokenpocket官网新版app下载|ethnic minority groups

作者: tokenpocket官网新版app下载
2024-03-14 21:20:30

民族和国籍在英语中如何区分?外国人是没有「民族」的概念吗? - 知乎

民族和国籍在英语中如何区分?外国人是没有「民族」的概念吗? - 知乎首页知乎知学堂发现等你来答​切换模式登录/注册民族国家种族民族和国籍在英语中如何区分?外国人是没有「民族」的概念吗?那天带外国人吃云南菜,想说这是个少数民族菜,突然想到一个问题,minority 在老外理解看来是少数人群吧,并不是特指民族概念吧?民族在英文中也是 n…显示全部 ​关注者91被浏览102,267关注问题​写回答​邀请回答​2 条评论​分享​14 个回答默认排序王赟 Maigo​2022 年度新知答主​ 关注「民族」有对应的英语词。若是指某一个人的民族属性,可以说 ethnicity;若是指某一个民族群体,可以说 ethnic group。minority 指「少数群体」,不一定按民族划分。但在讨论民族的语境中,就是指「少数民族」了。在没有语境的情况下,可以说 minority ethnic groups 明确指代「少数民族」。发布于 2017-12-13 02:44​赞同 29​​5 条评论​分享​收藏​喜欢收起​匿名用户将“民族”译为 nationality 是中国的官方译法,有历史惯性。现代英文中,除了少数例外,nationality 实际已经被“国籍”独占。表示“民族”时,为避免误会,一般使用 ethnic group。People 也可表示民族(表示民族时,复数为peoples),但似乎现在使用较少,而且几乎见不到单数使用,只用复数 peoples 表示笼统的“多个民族”。另,美国也常用 ethnic origin,强调“来自”哪里。编辑于 2017-12-13 09:48​赞同 50​​14 条评论​分享​收藏​喜欢

Chinese Ethnic Groups, Minority People Groups in China

Chinese Ethnic Groups, Minority People Groups in China

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Chinese Ethnic Groups

Written by Fercility JiangUpdated Jul. 18, 2023

China is a multi-ethnic nation. Besides Han Chinese, who make up over 90% of China's population, there are officially 55 minority ethnic groups living in China. Their costumes, festivals, and customs can be unique and colorful and are some of China's unique attractions.

The 10 Most Popular Minorities with Tourists

Most of the 10 most popular minorities in China live in unusually beautiful countryside or natural areas. Tourists like to see that as well as enjoy their distinctive cuisines and entertainment. Some such as the Tibetans, Manchus, and Uyghurs have notable ancient architecture, while others such as the Zhuang and Yao are noted for their beautiful terraced fields.

1. Zhuang - The Largest Ethnic Group

Longji Ancient Zhuang Village

The Zhuang ethnic group is the largest of the 55 minorities in China. About 18 million live in the south and southeast. Their main homeland is in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region and Yunnan Province. Others live in Hunan, Guizhou and Sichuan provinces.

Ethnic traits: Their main regional attractions are their beautiful countryside areas with intricate and beautifully scenic terraced fields such as Longji Old Zhuang Village (龙脊古壮寨). For an enjoyable visit, see our 4-Day Guilin City Essence and Longji Terraced Fields Hiking Tour.

2. Mongolians - The Most Famous Ethnic Minority

Mongolian people

The Mongolian ethnic group is best known for conquering most of Eurasia and establishing a large empire almost 1,000 years ago. The Mongolian Yuan Empire lasted about 100 years until 1368. Now, 6 million remain in China in Inner Mongolia, Jilin, Heilongjiang, Liaoning, Xinjiang, Hebei, and Qinghai Provinces.

Ethnic traits: They love hearty meat dishes, wrestling and horseback riding. Their annual Naadam summer sporting events are popular highlights you can visit with us.

3. The Hui - Chinese Muslims, the Most Widespread Minority

Lanzhou Hand Pulled Noodles Soup with beef is served in Hui restaurants all over China.

The Hui ethnic group is China's most widely distributed ethnic minority who are distinguished mainly by being ethnically Muslim. There is a sizeable population of 11 million. They live in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region in northwestern China and in many cities and villages in the provinces of Gansu, Xinjiang, Qinghai, Hebei, Henan, Sichuan, Yunnan and Shandong.

Ethnic traits: Though they are culturally like the Han, they are distinguished by being converts to Islam or being descendants of Muslims. They don't have a language of their own, and most keep almost no Muslim customs. They are unlike the Uyghurs who retain their own language and culture. Hui are known across China for their popular Lanzhou noodle restaurants.

4. Miao - Distinctive Culture and Architecture

A Miao girl dressed in their silver clothing and jewelry.

The Miao ethnic group consists of about 10 million people in China, and their traditional homeland is around the area of Guizhou where 4 million now live. But they were scattered widespread by persecution .

Ethnic traits: The Miao are quite interesting to visit. They prefer silver, and the women clothe themselves in silver suits and jewelry, and these make good souvenirs. They were fiercely independent, and love music. They have a distinctive style of music and architectural style that tourists can appreciate.

5. Dong - Famed for Lusheng Music and Architecture

Chengyang Bridge

The Dong live mainly in the provinces of Guizhou, Hunan, and Guangxi. Their villages are often located near Miao villages in Guizhou, and there are about 3 million of them in China. Their language is related to Thai.

Like the Miao, the Dong are known for fine Lusheng music. They are famed for distinctive polyphonal musical concerts, and their architecture and craftsmanship as exemplified in Chengyang Bridge in the Sanjiang Village area is distinctive and appreciated by tourists.

6. Uyghur - The Largest Ethnic Group in Xinjiang

The Jiaohe Ruins

The Uyghurs are a distinctive minority whose homeland is Xinjiang. About 11 million live there and in other parts of China, especially in Hunan and Henan.

Their language is related to Turkish. Around China, they are known for their "Lanzhou noodle" restaurants and delicious Xinjiang-style food. They have a long and colorful history on the Silk Road. Turpan, for example, is an excellent place to see their ancient culture and architecture such as the Jaiohe Ruins.

7. Manchu - The Creators of the Qing Empire

The Forbidden City is where you can see how the Manchu dynastic clan lived together.

The Manchu ethnic group in China are the descendants of the Manchus and Mongolians who invaded the Ming Empire and created the Qing Empire (1664–1912). Now about 11 million live in China. They now live mainly in their ancestral territories in the provinces of Liaoning, Heilongjiang, and Jilin.

After the founding of the Qing Empire, the Manchus were assimilated with the majority Han. Now, only a small percentage speak the traditional language. You can learn about their history and empire at the Palace Museum.

8. Tibetans - Descendants of a Powerful Empire

Tibetans mainly live in Tibet Autonomous Region in western China.

The Tibetans once ruled the mountains of southwest China, and they had a vast empire from the 7th to the 9th centuries. Now, about 6 million live in China, and 3 million of them live in Tibet that was their former stronghold.

Physically, the Tibetans are unusual in that they are unusually well adapted to living at high altitude. Those living at high altitudes have 10 times more nitric oxide in their blood than most people. Many are devout Buddhists. The massive Potala Palace in Lhasa, their former capital, is a good place to learn about their culture and history.

9. Yao - Famed for Their Rice Terraces

The Red Yao women of Longsheng, Guilin have unusually long hair.

The Yao ethnic group has a population of over 2.6 million. They live mainly in Guangxi, Hunan, Yunnan, Guangdong, Guizhou and Jiangxi Provinces together with the Zhuang.

Ethnic traits: Most of the Yao people are farmers who live in small villages and towns that are distributed widely in mountainous areas. To see them at work and visit their villages, you can take a trip to Guilin to the Dazhai Village area to the see their beautiful Jinkeng Terraced Fields.

10. Naxi - Noted for the Unique Culture and Waterworks

The Naxi are a comparatively small group of people who mainly live in Yunnan Province. The city of Lijiang is where most of their 330,000 population live. The government designates the distinctive Mosuo people of the Lugu Lake area outside of Lijiang as Naxi as well. About 50,000 Mosuo live there.

Ethnic traits: The two groups are quite different. The Mosuo are noted for a heavily matriarchal social system. The Naxi are more cosmopolitan. They have their own distinctive writing system and literature. They were historically traders who built intricate waterworks for their towns exemplified in the Ancient Town of Lijiang.

Some Other Ethnic Groups in China

A Bai girl in traditional Bai clothes

We also have information about these 10 interesting ethnic groups in China:

Bai Minority: noted for business and cultural sophistication, mostly in Yunnan

Dai Minority: They live in tropical lowlands and are closely related to Thai people, mostly in Yunnan

Hani Minority: beautiful terraced rice paddies and quality tea, mostly in Yunnan

Kazak Minority: a Turkic pastoralist people and neighbors with the Uyghurs

Qiang Minority: a mountain people with mysterious origins and Central Asian architecture, mostly in Sichuan

Shui Minority: a coastal people who migrated inland and retain many aspects of a coastal lifestyle, mostly in Guizhou

Tujia Minority: The Tujia inhabit several rugged scenic areas such as Zhangjiajie.

Yi Minority: known historically for building the Nanzhao empire and now known for acrobatic dances, mostly in Yunnan

Buyi Minority: noted for their towns made of stone, mostly in Guizhou

Lisu Minority: noted for long festivals, dancing and native instruments in a wilderness area, mostly in Yunnan

See China's Minorities during a Tailor-Made China Tour

Your whole family can have a fascinating and memorable visit in an ethnic village.

If you want to explore China's ethnic villages. See our China's Festival Tours and our China Minority Tours of southwestern China and Tibet, or simply contact us for a tailor-made tour.

Shangri-La Exploration Tour - 8-Day Kunming, Dali, Lijiang, and Shangri-La Highlights Tour

Yunnan Ethnic Minorities Tour - 6-Day Kunming, Dali, and Lijiang Highlights Tour

Further Reading

The Guizhou Museum of Marriage Customs of Ethnic Minorities is the only museum in China that features marriage customs of ethnic minorities.

China's Top Minority Cities

Southern Minority Food

Silk Road History will help you learn about the history of the Uyghurs, Mongolians and other peoples along the Silk Road route and Xinjiang.

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Ethnic minorities in China - Wikipedia

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1History of ethnicity in China

Toggle History of ethnicity in China subsection

1.1Early history

1.2Distinguishing nationalities in the PRC

1.3Reform and opening up

2Ethnic groups

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2.1Demographics

2.2List of ethnic groups

2.3Undistinguished ethnic groups

3Guarantee of rights and interests

4Religions and their most common affiliations

5Ethnic Minority Representation in the leadership of the CCP

6See also

7References

8Further reading

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

55 recognized ethnic minorities in Mainland China

For a list of ethnic groups in China, see List of ethnic groups in China and Languages of China.

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Ethnic minorities in China are the non-Han population in the People's Republic of China (PRC).

The PRC officially recognizes 55 ethnic minority groups within China in addition to the Han majority.[1] As of 2010, the combined population of officially-recognized minority groups comprised 8.49% of the population of Mainland China.[2] In addition to these officially-recognized ethnic minority groups, there are Chinese nationals who privately classify themselves as members of unrecognized ethnic groups, such as the very small Chinese Jewish, Tuvan, and Ili Turk communities, as well as the much larger Oirat and Japanese communities.

In Chinese, 'ethnic minority' has translated to shǎoshù mínzú (少數民族), wherein mínzú (民族) means 'nationality' or 'nation' (as in ethnic group)—in line with the Soviet concept of ethnicity—and shǎoshù (少數) means 'minority'.[3][4][5] Since the anthropological concept of ethnicity does not precisely match the Chinese or Soviet concepts (which are defined and regulated by the state), some scholars use the neologism zúqún (族群, 'ethnic group') to unambiguously refer to ethnicity.[6] Including shaoshu mínzu, Sun Yat-sen used the term zhōnghuá mínzú (中華民族, 'Chinese nation' or 'Chinese nationality') to reflect his belief that all of China's ethnic groups were parts of a single Chinese nation.[7]

The ethnic minority groups officially recognized by the PRC include those residing within mainland China as well as Taiwanese aborigines. However, the PRC does not accept the term aborigines or its variations, since it might suggest that Han people are not indigenous to Taiwan, or that Taiwan is not a core territory of China. Also, where the Republic of China (ROC) government in Taiwan, as of 2020, officially recognises 16 Taiwanese aboriginal tribes, the PRC classifies them all under a single ethnic group, the Gāoshān (高山, 'high mountain') minority, out of reluctance to recognize ethnic classifications derived from the work of Japanese anthropologists during the Japanese colonial era. (This is despite the fact that not all Taiwanese aborigines have traditional territories in the mountains; for example, the Tao People traditionally inhabit the island of Lanyu.) The regional governments of Hong Kong and Macau do not use this ethnic classification system, so figures by the PRC government exclude these two territories.

History of ethnicity in China[edit]

Further information: Ethnic groups in Chinese history and Racism in China

Early history[edit]

An 8th-century Tang dynasty Chinese clay figurine of a Sogdian man (an Eastern Iranian person) wearing a distinctive cap and face veil, possibly a camel rider or even a Zoroastrian priest engaging in a ritual at a fire temple, since face veils were used to avoid contaminating the holy fire with breath or saliva; Museum of Oriental Art (Turin), Italy.[8]

Throughout much of recorded Chinese history, there was little attempt by Chinese authors to separate the concepts of nationality, culture, and ethnicity.[9] Those outside of the reach of imperial control and dominant patterns of Chinese culture were thought of as separate groups of people regardless of whether they would today be considered as a separate ethnicity. The self-conceptualization of Han largely revolved around this center-periphery cultural divide. Thus, the process of Sinicization throughout history had as much to do with the spreading of imperial rule and culture as it did with actual ethnic migration.[citation needed]

This understanding persisted (with some changes during the Qing dynasty due to the importation of Western ideas) until the Communists seized power in 1949. Their understanding of minorities had been heavily influenced by the policies of the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin—and they also influenced the Communist regimes in the neighbouring countries of Vietnam and Laos[10]—but the Soviet definition of minorities did not cleanly map onto the Chinese people's historical definition of minorities. Soviet thinking about minorities was based on the belief that a nation consisted of people who spoke and wrote a common language, people whose culture was historic, and historic territory. Therefore, The people who inhabited each nation had the theoretical right to secede from a proposed federated government.[11] This differed from the previous way of thinking mainly in that instead of defining all those under imperial rule as Chinese, the nation (as defined as a space upon which power is projected) and ethnicity (the identity of the governed) were now separate; being under central rule no longer automatically meant being defined as Chinese. The Soviet model as applied to China gave rise to the autonomous regions in China; these areas were thought to be their own nations that had theoretical autonomy from the central government.[12]

During World War II, the American Asiatic Association published an entry in the 40th volume of their academic journal, Asia, concerning the problem of whether Chinese Muslims were Chinese or a separate 'ethnic minority', and the factors which led to either classification.[13] It tackled the question of why Muslims who were Chinese were considered a different race from other Chinese, and the separate question of whether all Muslims in China were united into one race. The first problem was posed with a comparison to Chinese Buddhists, who were not considered a separate race.[14] It concluded that the reason Chinese Muslims were considered separate was because of different factors like religion, culture, military feudalism, and that considering them a "racial minority" was wrong. It also came to the conclusion that the Japanese military spokesman was the only person who was propagating the false assertion that Chinese Muslims had "racial unity", which was disproved by the fact that Muslims in China were composed of multitudes of different races, separate from each other as were the "Germans and English", such as the Mongol Hui of Hezhou, Salar Hui of Qinghai, and Chan Tou Hui of Turkistan. The Japanese were trying to spread the lie that Chinese Muslims were one race, in order to propagate the claim that they should be separated from China into an "independent political organization."[13]

Distinguishing nationalities in the PRC[edit]

Early documents of the People's Republic of China (PRC), such as the 1982 constitution,[15] followed the Soviet practice of identifying 'nationalities' in the sense of ethnic groups (the concept is not to be confused with state citizenship).[3][5] The Chinese term mínzú (民族), borrowed from Japanese during the Republican period, translates this Soviet concept. The English translation (common in official documents) of 'nationality' again follows Soviet practice; in order to avoid confusion, however, alternative phraseology such as 'ethnicity' or 'ethnic group' is often used. Since the anthropological concept of ethnicity does not precisely match the Chinese or Soviet concepts (which, after all, are defined and regulated by the state), some scholars use the neologism zuqun (族群, 'ethnic group') to unambiguously refer to ethnicity.[6]

After 1949, a team of social scientists was assembled to enumerate the various mínzú. An immediate difficulty was that identities "on the ground" did not necessarily follow logically from things like shared languages or cultures; two neighboring regions might seem to share a common culture, and yet insist on their distinct identities.[16] Since this would lead to absurd results—every village could hardly send a representative to the National People's Congress—the social scientists attempted to construct coherent groupings of minorities using language as the main criterion for differentiation. Thus some villages with very different cultural practices and histories were lumped together under the same ethnonym. For example, the "Zhuang" ethnic group largely served as a catch-all for various hill villages in Guangxi province.[17]

The actual census taking of who was and was not a minority further eroded the neat differentiating lines the social scientists had drawn up. Individual ethnic status was often awarded based on family tree histories. If one had a father (or mother, for ethnic groups that were considered matrilineal) that had a surname considered to belong to a particular ethnic group, then one was awarded the coveted minority status. This had the result that villages that had previously thought of themselves as homogenous and essentially Han were now divided between those with ethnic identity and those without.[18]

The team of social scientists that assembled the list of all the ethnic groups also described what they considered to be the key differentiating attributes between each group, including culture, custom, and language. The center then used this list of attributes to select representatives of each group to perform on television and radio in an attempt to reinforce the government's narrative of China as a multi-ethnic state and to prevent the culture of the minority ethnic groups from assimilating by the Han and the rest of the world.[19] However, with the development of modern technology, these attempts brought little effect. In fact, many of those labeled as specific minorities bore no relationship to the music, clothing, and other practices presented with images and representations of "their people" in the media.

Under this process, 39 ethnic groups were recognized by the first national census in 1954. This further increased to 54 by the second national census in 1964, with the Lhoba group added in 1965. The last change was the addition of the Jino people in 1979, bringing the number of recognized ethnic groups to the current 56.

Reform and opening up[edit]

Ethnolinguistic map of China in 1983.[20]However, as China opened up and reformed post-1979, many Han acquired enough money to begin to travel. One of the favorite travel experiences of the wealthy was visits to minority areas, to see the exotic rituals of the minority peoples.[21][22] Responding to this interest, many minority entrepreneurs, despite themselves perhaps never having grown up practicing the dances, rituals, or songs themselves, began to cater to these tourists by performing acts similar to what the older generation or the local residents told. In this way, the groups of people named Zhuang or other named minorities have begun to have more in common with their fellow co-ethnics, as they have adopted similar self-conceptions in response to the economic demand of consumers for their performances.[citation needed]

The categorization of 55 minority groups was a major step forward from denial of the existence of different ethnic groups in China which had been the policy of Sun Yet-Sen's Nationalist government that came to power in 1911, which also engaged in the common use of derogatory names to refer to minorities (a practice officially abolished in 1951).[3] However, the Communist Party's categorization was also rampantly criticized since it reduced the number of recognized ethnic groups by eightfold,[citation needed] and today the wei shibie menzu (literally 'undistinguished ethnic groups') total more than 730,000 people. These groups include Geija, Khmu, Kucong, Mang, Deng, Sherpas, Bajia and Youtai (Jewish).[citation needed]

After the breakup of Yugoslavia and the dissolution of the Soviet Union, there was a shift in official conceptions of minorities in China: rather than defining them as 'nationalities', they became 'ethnic groups'. The difference between 'nationality' and 'ethnicity', as Uradyn Erden-Bulag describes it, is that the former treats the minorities of China as societies with "a fully functional division of labor," history, and territory, whereas the latter treats minorities as a "category" and focuses on their maintenance of boundaries and their self-definition in relation to the majority group. These changes are reflected in uses of the term mínzú (民族) and its translations. The official journal Minzu Tuanjie changed its English name from Nationality Unity to Ethnic Unity in 1995. Similarly, the Central University for Nationalities changed its name to Minzu University of China. Scholars began to prefer the term zuqun (族群, 'ethnic group') over minzu.[23] The Chinese model for identifying and categorizing ethnic minorities established at the founding of the PRC followed the Soviet model, drawing inspiration from Joseph Stalin's 1953 'four commons' criteria to identify ethnic groups: "(1) a distinct language; (2) a recognized indigenous homeland or common territory; (3) a common economic life; and (4) a strong sense of identity and distinctive customs, including dress, religion and foods."[citation needed]

Following the breakup of the Soviet Union intellectuals and policymakers within China began to argue that the designation of minority groups could be a threat to the country. Violence in Xinjiang and Tibet provided evidence for this argument. Beijing University professor Ma Rong argued that the Chinese Communist Party had unwittingly created a "dual structure" of governance in which the representation and identity given to recognized ethnic groups would increase ethnocultural differences and create social conflict. He recommended new policies of ethnic fusion and assimilation. These proposals made by Ma and others were controversial at the time but they would find a place at the heart of the policy of the Xi Jinping administration. Xi has shifted state policy towards assimilation in what he calls the "grand minzu fusion" or "the coalescing of blood and minds."[24] The CCP under Xi has reacted to violence committed by a number of Uyghurs by the imprisonment of this group in the Xinjiang internment camps.[25]

In 2020 a Han Chinese was named director of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission for the first time since 1954.[24]

Ethnic groups[edit]

See also: List of ethnic groups in China

The Long-horn tribe, a small branch of ethnic Miao in the western part of Guizhou Province

China is officially composed of 56 ethnic groups (55 minorities plus the dominant Han). However, some of the ethnic groups as classified by the PRC government contain, within themselves, diverse groups of people. Various groups of the Miao minority, for example, speak different dialects of the Hmong–Mien languages, Tai–Kadai languages, and Chinese, and practice a variety of different cultural customs.[26] Whereas in many nations a citizen's minority status is defined by their self-identification as an ethnic minority, in China minority nationality (xiaoshu minzu) is fixed at birth, a practice that can be traced to the foundation of the PRC, when the Communist Party commissioned studies to categorize and delineate groups based on research teams' investigation of minorities' social history, economic life, language and religion in China's different regions.

The degree of variation between ethnic groups is not consistent. Many ethnic groups are described as having unique characteristics from other minority groups and from the dominant Han, but there are also some that are very similar to the Han majority group. Most Hui Chinese are indistinguishable from Han Chinese except for the fact that they practice Islam, and most Manchu are considered to be largely assimilated into dominant Han society.[citation needed]

China's official 55 minorities are located primarily in the south, west, and north of China. Only Tibet Autonomous Region and Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region have a majority population of official minorities, while all other provinces, municipalities and regions of China have a Han majority. In Beijing itself, the Han ethnic composition makes up nearly 96% of the total population, while the ethnic minority total is 4.31%, or a population of 584,692 (as of 2008).[citation needed]

Much of the dialog within China regarding minorities has generally portrayed minorities as being further behind the Han in progress toward modernization and modernity. Minority groups are often portrayed as rustic, wild, and antiquated. As the government often portrays itself as a benefactor of the minorities, those less willing to assimilate (despite the offers of assistance) are portrayed as masculine, violent, and unreasonable. Groups that have been depicted this way include the Tibetans, Uyghurs and the Mongols.[27] Groups that have been more willing to assimilate (and accept the help of the government) are often portrayed as feminine and sexual, including the Miao, Tujia and the Dai.[19]

Demographics[edit]

The largest ethnic group, Han, according to a 2005 sampling, constitute about 91.9% of the total population. The next largest ethnic groups in terms of population include the Zhuang (18 million), Manchu (10 million), Hui (10 million), Miao (9 million), Uyghur (8 million), Yi (7.8 million), Tujia (8 million), Mongols (5.8 million), Tibetans (5.4 million), Buyei (3 million), Yao (3.1 million), and Koreans (2.5 million). Minority populations have grown fast due to them being unaffected by the One Child Policy.[28]

List of ethnic groups[edit]

Ethnic minorities with low populations (fewer than 100,000 individuals) were not taken into account here.[29]

Ethnic Hans

Beijing Hans

Chongqing Hans

Gan Hans

Gansu Hans

Guizhou Hans

Hainan Hans

Hakka Hans

Hebei Hans

Heilongjiang Hans

Henan Hans

Hubei Hans

Jiaoliao Hans

Jilin & Liaoning Hans

Lower Yangtze Hans

Min Hans

Shaanxi Hans

Shandong Hans

Shanxi Hans

Sichuan Hans

Taiwan Hans

Tianjin Hans

Wu Hans

Xiang Hans

Yue Hans

Yunnan Hans

Ethnic minorities

Bai

Chinese Koreans

Dai

Dong

Evenki

Hani

Hui

Jingpo

Kazakhs

Kyrgyz

Lahu

Li

Lisu

Manchus

Maonan

Miao

Taiwanese indigenous people

Tajiks

Tibetans

Tujia

Uyghurs

Wa

Yao

Yi

Zhuang

Mongolian (sub)groups

Buryats

Chinese Mongols

Daurs

Khalka Mongols

Oirat Mongols

Undistinguished ethnic groups[edit]

Main article: Unrecognized ethnic groups in China

"Undistinguished" ethnic groups are ethnic groups that have not been officially recognized or classified by the central government. The group numbers more than 730,000 people, and would constitute the twentieth most populous ethnic group of China if taken as a single group. The vast majority of this group is found in Guizhou Province.[citation needed]

These "undistinguished ethnic groups" do not include groups that have been controversially classified into existing groups. For example, the Mosuo are officially classified as Naxi, and the Chuanqing are classified as Han Chinese, but they reject these classifications and view themselves as separate ethnic groups.

Citizens of mainland China who are of foreign origin are classified using yet another separate label: "foreigners naturalized into the Chinese citizenship" (外国人入中国籍). However, if a newly naturalized citizen already belongs to a recognized existing group among the 56 ethnic groups, then he or she is classified into that ethnic group rather than the special label.

Guarantee of rights and interests[edit]

Major Autonomous areas within Yunnan. (excluding Hui)

Major Autonomous areas within Guizhou. (excluding Hui)

Main article: Affirmative action in China

The PRC's Constitution and laws guarantee equal rights to all ethnic groups in China and help promote ethnic minority groups' economic and cultural development.[30] The constitution prohibits both discrimination and acts of disunity.[31] Articles 115 and 116 of the constitution state that in the provincial level autonomous regions and the autonomous prefectures and counties set aside for minority administration, local states via the local people's congresses "have the power to enact regulations on the exercise of autonomy and other separate regulations in the light of the political, economic, and cultural characteristics" of those areas.[31]

One notable preferential treatment ethnic minorities enjoy was their exemption from the population growth control of the One-Child Policy. But according to an investigative report by The Associated Press published at 28 June 2020, the Chinese government is taking draconian measures to slash birth rates among Uighurs and other minorities as part of a sweeping campaign to curb its Muslim population, even as it encourages some of the country's Han majority to have more children.[32]

While individual women have spoken out before about forced birth control, the practice is far more widespread and systematic than previously known, according to an AP investigation based on government statistics, state documents and interviews with 30 ex-detainees, family members and a former detention camp instructor. The campaign over the past four years in the far west region of Xinjiang is leading to what some experts are calling a form of "demographic genocide".[32] Ethnic minorities enjoy other special exemptions which vary by province- these include lower tax thresholds and lower required scores for entry into university. The use of these measures to raise ethnic minorities' human capital is seen by the central government as important for improving the economic development of ethnic minorities. Ethnic minorities are represented in the National People's Congress as well as governments at the provincial and prefectural levels. Some ethnic minorities in China live in what are described as ethnic autonomous areas. These "regional autonomies" guarantee ethnic minorities the freedom to use and develop their ethnic languages, and to maintain their own cultural and social customs. In addition, the PRC government has provided preferential economic development and aid to areas where ethnic minorities live. Furthermore, the Chinese government has allowed and encouraged the involvement of ethnic minority participation in the party. Even though ethnic minorities in China are granted specific rights and freedoms, many ethnic minorities still have headed towards the urban life in order to obtain a well paid job.[33]

Minorities have widely benefited from China's minimum livelihood guarantee program (known as the dibao) a programme introduced nationwide in 1999 whose number of participants had reached nearly twenty million by 2012. The nature of the selection process entails that the programme's providers be proactive and willing in seeking out impoverished prospective participants, as opposed to more comprehensive welfare schemes such as the Urban Resident Basic Medical Insurance Scheme (URBMI), which is universally implemented. As such, the selection process for participants in the dibao programme has generated a perception among observers of the scheme that this programme have been used to mitigate dissent and neutralize any threat to the government that could lead to unrest- including negative performance evaluations of local officials.[citation needed]

The Chinese government has committed a series of ongoing human rights abuses against Uyghurs and other ethnic and religious minorities in Xinjiang that is often characterized as Uyghurs genocide starting in 2014.

Religions and their most common affiliations[edit]

Buddhism/Taoism — the Miao (minority), Lisu (minority), Bai, Bulang, Dai, Jinuo, Jing, Jingpo, Mongol, Manchu, Naxi (including Mosuo), Nu, Tai, Tibetan, Zhuang (minority), Yi (minority), and Yugur ("Yellow Uyghurs").[34]

Eastern Orthodox Christianity — the Russians

Islam — the Hui, Uyghurs, Kazakhs, Dongxiang people, Kyrgyz people, Salar, Tajiks, Uzbeks, Bonans, and Tatars.[35]

Judaism — Kaifeng Jews

Protestant Christianity — the Lisu (70%; see Lisu Church)

Shamanism/Animism — Daur, Ewenkis, Oroqen, Hezhen, and Derung.

Ethnic Minority Representation in the leadership of the CCP[edit]

Since the People's Republic of China was established, ethnic minorities have made up around 10% of the Central Committee,[36][better source needed] whereas the rest of the members are of the Han Chinese ethnic group. That being said, a majority of the ethnic minority members of the Central Committee are alternate members.[36][better source needed] In the 19th Congress there are only 16 full time members who are ethnic minorities.[36][better source needed] While only 6 of the 55 ethnic minorities are represented in the Central Committee,[37] the percentage of ethnic minority members in the Central Committee exceeds the percentage of ethnic minority population in China. Ethnic minorities only make up roughly 7.5% of China's population, whereas 92% are Han Chinese,[38] the dominant ethnicity. Still the majority of ethnic minorities are severely underrepresented in the Central Committee.

A study conducted by three scholars in 2012, "Getting Ahead in the Communist Party: Explaining the Advancement of Central Committee Members", found that ethnic minorities had an advantage when being considered for promotion in Congress. They explain this phenomenon through the United Front policies that China has been engaged with since the Reform Era.[39] These policies attempt to promote stability and legitimacy among the ethnic minority population through concerted efforts to involve them in the country's politics . Thus the authors argue this is why ethnic minorities enjoyed an advantage in the Reform Period. Other scholars add that the Party is eager to include ethnic minorities in the government because of the backlash that China has faced from the rest of the world concerning the way they treated Tibet and most recently the Uyghurs in Xinjiang.[40] Including ethnic minorities in the Party's leadership adds to the "United Front" that China wants to portray.[41] Though they are included, it remains unclear as to what amount of influence they assert.[42]

See also[edit]

China portal

Affirmative action in China

Han Chinese subgroups

China National Ethnic Song and Dance Ensemble

Chinese nationality law

Demographics of the People's Republic of China and Taiwan

Demographics of China#Population density and distribution

Dzungar genocide

Ethnic groups in Chinese history

Ethnic issues in China

Graphic pejoratives in written Chinese

Human rights in China

List of Chinese administrative divisions by ethnic group

List of endangered languages in China

List of ethnic groups in China

Minzu University of China, a university in Beijing designated for ethnic minorities.

Secession in China

Sinocentrism

Taiwanese indigenous peoples

Unrecognized ethnic groups in China

Persecution of Uyghurs in China

Zhonghua minzu

References[edit]

^ "Ethnic Groups in China". English.gov.cn. 26 August 2014.

^ Wang Guanqun, ed. (28 April 2011). "Han Chinese proportion in China's population drops: census data". English.news.cn. Archived from the original on 2 May 2011.

^ a b c Binggao, Jin. [1987] 1988. "When Does The Word 'Minority Nationality' [Shaoshu Minzu] [First] Appear in Our Country?," translated by Tibet Information Network. Bulletin of the History of the Tibet Communist Party 1(19). p. 45 ff.

^ Chang, Ntxheb. "Conclusion: Splendid China and Being Minzu." Being Shaoshu Minzu in Contemporary China. US: Boston College. via Mediakron.

^ a b Moseley, George. "China's Fresh Approach to the National Minority Question." The China Quarterly.

^ a b Perry, Elizabeth J.; Selden, Mark, eds. (5 April 2010), "Alter/native Mongolian identity: From nationality to ethnic group", Chinese Society (0 ed.), Routledge, p. 284, doi:10.4324/9780203856314-17, ISBN 978-0-203-85631-4

^ Landis, Dan, and Rosita D. Albert. 2012. Handbook of Ethnic Conflict: International Perspectives. Springer. ISBN 978-1461404477. p. 182 (archived).

^ Lee Lawrence. (3 September 2011). "A Mysterious Stranger in China". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 31 August 2016.

^ Harrell, Stephan (1996). Cultural encounters on China's ethnic frontiers. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-97380-7.

^ Michaud J., 2009 Handling Mountain Minorities in China, Vietnam and Laos : From History to Current Issues. Asian Ethnicity 10(1): 25–49.

^ Blaut, J. M. (1987). "The Theory of National Minorities". The National Question: Decolonizing the Theory of Nationalism. London: Zed Books. ISBN 978-0-86232-439-1.

^ Ma, Rong (June 2010). "The Soviet Model's Influence and the Current Debate on Ethnic Relations". Global Asia.

^ a b American Asiatic Association (1940). Asia: journal of the American Asiatic Association, Volume 40. Asia Pub. Co. p. 660. Retrieved 8 May 2011.

^ Hartford Seminary Foundation (1941). The Moslem World, Volumes 31–34. Hartford Seminary Foundation. p. 182. Retrieved 8 May 2011.

^ Constitution of the People's Republic of China Archived 23 May 2006 at the Wayback Machine, 4 December 1982. Retrieved 27 February 2007.

^ Mullaney, Thomas (2010). "Seeing for the State: The Role of Social Scientists in China's Ethnic Classification Project". Asian Ethnicity. 11 (3): 325–342. doi:10.1080/14631369.2010.510874. S2CID 145787875.

^ Kaup, Katherine Palmer (2002). "Regionalism versus Ethnic nationalism". The China Quarterly. 172: 863–884. doi:10.1017/s0009443902000530. S2CID 154596032.

^ Mullaney, Thomas (2004). "Ethnic Classification Writ Large: The 1954 Yunnan Province Ethnic Classification Project and its Foundations in Republican-Era Taxonomic Thought". China Information. 18 (2): 207–241. doi:10.1177/0920203X04044685. S2CID 146596892.

^ a b Gladney, Dru C. (1994). "Representing Nationality in China: Refiguring Majority/Minority Identities". The Journal of Asian Studies. 53 (1): 92–123. doi:10.2307/2059528. JSTOR 2059528. S2CID 162540993.

^ "China - Ethnolinguistic Groups 1983". University of Texas Libraries. 1983. Retrieved 20 September 2019.

^ Oakes, Timothy S. (31 December 2017), Picard, Michel; Wood, Robert E. (eds.), "2. Ethnic Tourism in Rural Guizhou: Sense of Place and the Commerce of Authenticity", Tourism, Ethnicity, and the State in Asian and Pacific Societies, University of Hawaii Press, pp. 35–70, doi:10.1515/9780824865252-003, ISBN 978-0-8248-6525-2

^ Hillman, Ben (2003). "Paradise under Construction: Minorities, Myths and Modernity in Northwest Yunnan" (PDF). Asian Ethnicity. 4 (2): 177–190. doi:10.1080/14631360301654. S2CID 143987010.

^ Perry, Elizabeth J.; Selden, Mark; Uradyn Erden-Bulag. "Alter/native Mongolian identity: From nationality to ethnic group". Chinese Society: Change, conflict and resistance. Routledge. pp. 261–287. ISBN 978-0-203-85631-4.

^ a b Leibold, James. "Beyond Xinjiang: Xi Jinping's Ethnic Crackdown". thediplomat.com. The Diplomat. Retrieved 5 May 2021.

^ "Dismantling China's Muslim gulag in Xinjiang is not enough". The Economist. 9 January 2020. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 16 November 2020. A tiny minority have made their displeasure known violently. China has reacted by building a vast network of prison camps and tossing perhaps 1m Uighurs into it for "vocational training"

^ Xiaobing Li, and Patrick Fuliang Shan, Ethnic China: Identity, Assimilation and Resistance, Lexington and Rowman & Littlefield, 2015.

^ Hillman, Ben (2006). "Macho Minority: Masculinity and Ethnicity on the Edge of Tibet" (PDF). Modern China. 32 (2): 251–272. doi:10.1177/0097700405286186. S2CID 53869758. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 February 2016. Despite tremendous diversity among this broad and dubious ethnic category, the Han became the personification of the new nation and a symbol of modernity and progress. The new Communist Party leaders continued this project, presenting the Han peoples as the harbingers of modernity and progress, a beacon to the non- Han peoples of the political periphery who found themselves unwitting members of a new nation-state defined by clear borders (...) Ethnic minorities entered the national imagination as the primitive Other against which China's modern national identity could be constructed.

^ "MINORITIES IN CHINA | Facts and Details". Factsanddetails.com.

^ "China & Mongolia Regional DNA Project". Eupedia.

^ "Constitution of the People's Republic of China".

^ a b Lin, Chun (2006). The transformation of Chinese socialism. Durham [N.C.]: Duke University Press. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-8223-3785-0. OCLC 63178961.

^ a b AP’s global investigative team (28 June 2020). "China cuts Uighur births with IUDs, abortion, sterilization". Associated Press. Retrieved 1 August 2020.

^ Yardley, Jim (11 May 2008). "China Sticking With One-Child Policy". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 November 2008.

^ "Ethnic Groups". China.org.cn. Retrieved 7 March 2019.

^ Jackie Armijo (Winter 2006). "Islamic Education in China". Harvard Asia Quarterly. 10 (1). Archived from the original on 28 September 2007.

^ a b c "Periphery: Ethnic Minority Candidates for the 20th Central Committee". China-US Focus. 11 June 2022. Retrieved 22 September 2023.

^ "Who Rules China? Comparing Representation on the NPC and Central Committee". MacroPolo. Retrieved 22 September 2023.

^ Solis, Jacqueline. "LibGuides: Chinese Ethnic Groups: Overview Statistics". guides.lib.unc.edu. Retrieved 22 September 2023.

^ Shih, Victor; Adolph, Christopher; Liu, Mingxing (February 2012). "Getting Ahead in the Communist Party: Explaining the Advancement of Central Committee Members in China". American Political Science Review. 106 (1): 166–187. doi:10.1017/S0003055411000566. ISSN 0003-0554.

^ "Uyghurs | Human Rights Watch". www.hrw.org. Retrieved 22 September 2023.

^ Li, Cheng (2008). "Ethnic Minority Elites in China's Party-State Leadership". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

^ "How much of the NPC is composed of women and ethnic minorities?". South China Morning Post. 11 March 2021. Retrieved 22 September 2023.

Further reading[edit]

Tang, Wenfang and He, Gaochao. "Separate but Loyal: Ethnicity and Nationalism in China." Policy Studies 56. East–West Center.

China Ethnic Statistical Yearbook 2016

vteEthnic groups in ChinaUnderlined: the 56 recognized ethnic groupsSino-TibetanSinitic

Bai

Caijia

Chuanqing

Han

subgroups

Hui

Longjia

Waxiang

Lolo-Burmese

Achang

Akha

Bisu

Hani

Jino

Kucong

Lahu

Laomian

Laopin

Lisu

Mosuo

Nakhi

Nu

Qixingmin

Yi

Qiangic

Baima

Gyalrong

Pumi

Qiang

Tibetic

Monpa

Sherpa

Tibetan

Others

Deng

Derung

Jingpo

Lhoba

Tujia

Austroasiatic

Blang

Bolyu

Kunge

Khmu

Lai

Mang

Pakan

Ta'ang

Vietnamese

Wa

Austronesian

Filipino

Gaoshan

Utsuls

Hmong-Mien

Gejia

Miao

Hmong

She

Yao

Mongolic

Bonan

Daur

Dongxiang

Hamnigan

Kangjia

Khatso

Mongols

Abaga

Abaganar

Aohans

Baarins

Buryats

Chahars

Gorlos

Jalaids

Jaruud

Khalkha

Kharchin

Khishigten

Khorchin

Khuuchid

Muumyangan

Naimans

Oirats

Dzungar

Khoid

Khoshut

Olot

Torghut

Upper Mongols

Onnigud

Ordos

Sichuan Mongols

Sunud

Urad

Monguor

Sogwo Arig

Yugur

Eastern

Kra–Dai

Bouyei

Buyang

Dai

Tai Lue

Tai Nua

Dong

Gelao

Li

Maonan

Nùng

Mulao

Qabiao

Rau

Shan

Sui

Yang

Zhuang

Tungusic

Evenks

Solon

Manchus

Nanai

Oroqen

Sibes

Turkic

Altaians

Äynu

Dolan

Fuyu Kyrgyz

Ili Turks

Kazakh

Kyrgyz

Salar

Tatar

Tuvans

Uyghurs

Uzbeks

Yugur

Western

Indo-European

Armenians

Iranians

Nepalis

Daman

Russians

Tajiks (Pamiris)

Wakhis

Others

African Chinese

Indians

Japanese

Jews

Kaifeng Jews

Koreans (Chaoxianzu)

Macanese

Nivkhs

Pakistanis

Related

Han nationalism

chauvinism

Local ethnic nationalism

Minzu

Zhonghua minzu

Unrecognized ethnic groups in China

Immigrant ethnic groups in China

Historic ethnic groups

vteEthnic groups in Asia Sovereign states

Afghanistan

Armenia

Azerbaijan

Bahrain

Bangladesh

Bhutan

Brunei

Cambodia

China

Cyprus

East Timor (Timor-Leste)

Egypt

Georgia

India

Indonesia

Iran

Iraq

Israel

Japan

Jordan

Kazakhstan

North Korea

South Korea

Kuwait

Kyrgyzstan

Laos

Lebanon

Malaysia

Maldives

Mongolia

Myanmar

Nepal

Oman

Pakistan

Philippines

Qatar

Russia

Saudi Arabia

Singapore

Sri Lanka

Syria

Tajikistan

Thailand

Turkey

Turkmenistan

United Arab Emirates

Uzbekistan

Vietnam

Yemen

States withlimited recognition

Abkhazia

Northern Cyprus

Palestine

South Ossetia

Taiwan

Dependencies andother territories

British Indian Ocean Territory

Christmas Island

Cocos (Keeling) Islands

Hong Kong

Macau

Category

Asia portal

vteEthnic minorities in AsiaSovereign states

Afghanistan

Armenia

Azerbaijan

Bahrain

Bangladesh

Bhutan

Brunei

Cambodia

China

Cyprus

East Timor (Timor-Leste)

Egypt

Georgia

India

Indonesia

Iran

Iraq

Israel

Japan

Jordan

Kazakhstan

North Korea

South Korea

Kuwait

Kyrgyzstan

Laos

Lebanon

Malaysia

Maldives

Mongolia

Myanmar

Nepal

Oman

Pakistan

Philippines

Qatar

Russia

Saudi Arabia

Singapore

Sri Lanka

Syria

Tajikistan

Thailand

Turkey

Turkmenistan

United Arab Emirates

Uzbekistan

Vietnam

Yemen

States withlimited recognition

Abkhazia

Northern Cyprus

Palestine

South Ossetia

Taiwan

Dependencies andother territories

British Indian Ocean Territory

Christmas Island

Cocos (Keeling) Islands

Hong Kong

Macau

Category

Asia portal

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2Taiwanese aborigines

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9External links

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List of ethnic groups in China

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the ethnic groups in historical China, see Ethnic groups in Chinese history.

Ethnolinguistic map of China

China's Autonomous Regions and its Designated Ethnic Minority

The Han people are the largest ethnic group in mainland China. In 2010, 91.51% of the population were classified as Han (~1.2 billion).[1] Besides the Han Chinese majority, 55 other ethnic (minority) groups are categorized in present-day China, numbering approximately 105 million people (8%), mostly concentrated in the bordering northwest, north, northeast, south and southwest but with some in central interior areas.

The major ethnic minorities in China are the Zhuang (19.6 million), Uyghurs (11 million), Hui (11.4 million), Miao (11 million), Manchu (10.4 million), Yi (9.8 million), Tujia (9.6 million), Tibetans (7 million), Mongols (6.3 million), Buyei (3.5 million), Dong (3.5 million), Yao (3.3 million), Bai (2 million), Koreans (1.7 million), Hani (1.7 million), Li (1.6 million), Kazakhs (1.5 million), and Dai (1.2 million).[2] At least 126,000 people from Canada, the United States, and Europe are living in mainland China.[3] In addition, there are a number of unrecognized ethnic groups which together comprise over 730,000 people.

Officially recognized groups[edit]

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Officially recognized ethnic groups receive or have received certain benefits over Han Chinese under the regional ethnic autonomy system, including affirmative action, exemptions from the one-child policy, designated seats in political organs and government support to preserve their culture. Ethnic minority autonomous areas receive additional state subsidies.[4][5] Languages of officially recognized minorities are used in official government documents.[6]

Soon after the establishment of the People's Republic of China, 39 ethnic groups were recognized by the first national census in 1954. This further increased to 54 by the second national census in 1964, with the Lhoba group added in 1965. The last change was the addition of the Jino people in 1979, bringing the number of recognized ethnic groups to the current 56. The following are the 56 ethnic groups (listed by population) officially recognized by the People's Republic of China.[7]

English Name

Standard Romanization

CodeA

Simplified Chinese

Mandarin Pinyin

2020 National Shares

2020 PopulationB

2010 PopulationB

2000 PopulationB

1990 PopulationB

Year of recognitionC

Han1

Han

HA

汉族

Hànzú

91.1098%

1,284,446,389

1,220,844,520

1,139,773,008

1,042,482,187

1954

Zhuang

Zhuang

ZH

壮族

Zhuàngzú

1.3801%

19,568,546

16,926,381

16,187,163

15,489,630

1954

Uyghur

Uygur

UG

维吾尔族

Wéiwú'ěrzú

0.8352%

11,774,538

10,069,346

8,405,416

7,214,431

1954

Hui2

Hui

HU

回族

Huízú

0.8070%

11,377,914

10,586,087

9,828,126

8,602,978

1954

Miao3

Miao

MH

苗族

Miáozú

0.7851%

11,067,929

9,426,007

8,945,538

7,398,035

1954

Manchu

Man

MA

满族

Mǎnzú

0.7394%

10,423,303

10,387,958

10,708,464

9,821,180

1954

Yi

Yi

YI

彝族

Yízú

0.6973%

9,830,327

8,714,393

7,765,858

6,572,173

1954

Tujia

Tujia

TJ

土家族

Tǔjiāzú

0.6801%

9,587,732

8,353,912

8,037,014

5,704,223

1964

Tibetan4

Zang

ZA

藏族

Zàngzú

0.5008%

7,060,731

6,282,187

5,422,954

4,593,330

1954

Mongol

Mongol

MG

蒙古族

Měnggǔzú

0.4461%

6,290,204

5,981,840

5,827,808

4,806,849

1954

Bouyei

Bouyei

BY

布依族

Bùyīzú

0.2537%

3,576,752

2,870,034

2,973,217

2,545,059

1954

Dong5

Dong

DO

侗族

Dòngzú

0.2480%

3,495,993

2,879,974

2,962,911

2,514,014

1954

Yao

Yao

YA

瑶族

Yáozú

0.2347%

3,309,341

2,796,003

2,638,878

2,134,013

1954

Bai

Bai

BA

白族

Báizú

0.1484%

2,091,543

1,933,510

1,861,895

1,594,827

1954

Hani6

Hani

HN

哈尼族

Hānízú

0.1229%

1,733,166

1,660,932

1,440,029

1,253,952

1954

Korean

Chosŏn

CS

朝鲜族

Cháoxiǎnzú

0.1207%

1,702,479

1,830,929

1,929,696

1,920,597

1954

Li

Li

LI

黎族

Lízú

0.1136%

1,602,104

1,463,064

1,248,022

1,110,900

1954

Kazakh

Kazak

KZ

哈萨克族

Hāsàkèzú

0.1108%

1,562,518

4,447,588

4,251,023

3,111,718

1954

Dai7

Dai

DA

傣族

Dǎizú

0.0943%

1,329,985

1,261,311

1,159,231

1,025,128

1954

Lisu

Lisu

LS

傈僳族

Lìsùzú

0.0541%

762,296

702,839

635,101

574,856

1954

She

She

SH

畲族

Shēzú

0.0529%

746,385

708,651

710,039

630,378

1964

Dongxiang

Dongxiang

DX

东乡族

Dōngxiāngzú

0.0550%

774,947

621,500

513,826

373,872

1954

Gelao

Gelao

GL

仡佬族

Gēlǎozú

0.0481%

677,521

550,746

579,744

437,997

1964

Lahu

Lahu

LH

拉祜族

Lāhùzú

0.0354%

499,167

485,966

453,765

411,476

1954

Sui

Sui

SU

水族

Shuǐzú

0.0352%

495,928

411,847

407,000

345,993

1954

Wa

Wa

WA

佤族

Wǎzú

0.0306%

430,997

429,709

396,709

351,974

1954

Nakhi8

Naxi

NX

纳西族

Nàxīzú

0.0230%

323,767

326,295

309,477

278,009

1954

Qiang

Qiang

QI

羌族

Qiāngzú

0.0222%

312,981

309,576

306,476

198,252

1954

Tu

Tu

TU

土族

Tǔzú

0.0200%

281,928

289,565

241,593

191,624

1954

Mulao9

Mulao

ML

仫佬族

Mùlǎozú

0.0197%

277,233

216,257

207,464

159,328

1964

Kyrgyz

Kirgiz

KG

柯尔克孜族

Kē'ěrkèzīzú

0.0145%

204,402

186,708

160,875

141,549

1954

Xibe

Xibe

XB

锡伯族

Xībózú

0.0136%

191,911

190,481

189,357

172,847

1954

Salar

Salar

SL

撒拉族

Sālāzú

0.0117%

165,159

130,607

104,521

87,697

1954

Jingpo10

Jingpo

JP

景颇族

Jǐngpōzú

0.0114%

160,471

147,828

132,158

119,209

1954

Daur

Daur

DU

达斡尔族

Dáwò'ěrzú

0.0094%

132,299

131,992

132,747

121,357

1964

Blang

Blang

BL

布朗族

Bùlǎngzú

0.0090%

127,345

119,639

91,891

82,280

1964

Maonan11

Maonan

MN

毛南族

Máonánzú

0.0088%

124,092

101,192

107,184

71,968

1964

Tajik12

Tajik

TA

塔吉克族

Tǎjíkèzú

0.0036%

50,896

51,069

41,056

33,538

1954

Pumi

Pumi

PM

普米族

Pǔmǐzú

0.0032%

45,012

42,861

33,628

29,657

1964

Achang

Achang

AC

阿昌族

Āchāngzú

0.0031%

43,775

39,555

33,954

27,708

1964

Nu

Nu

NU

怒族

Nùzú

0.0026%

36,575

37,523

28,770

27,123

1964

Evenki

Ewenki

EW

鄂温克族

Èwēnkèzú

0.0025%

34,617

30,875

30,545

26,315

1954

Vietnamese13

Gin

GI

京族

Jīngzú

0.0024%

33,112

28,199

22,584

18,915

1964

Jino

Jino

JN

基诺族

Jīnuòzú

0.0018%

26,025

23,143

20,899

18,021

1979

Bonan

Bonan

BO

保安族

Bǎo'ānzú

0.0017%

24,434

20,074

16,505

12,212

1954

De'ang14

Deang

DE

德昂族

Dé'ángzú

0.0016%

22,354

20,556

17,935

15,462

1964

Russian

Russ

RS

俄罗斯族

Éluósīzú

0.0011%

16,136

15,393

15,631

13,504

1954

Yugur

Yugur

YG

裕固族

Yùgùzú

0.0010%

14,706

14,378

13,747

12,297

1954

Uzbek

Uzbek

UZ

乌孜别克族

Wūzībiékèzú

0.0009%

12,742

10,569

12,423

14,502

1954

Monba

Monba

MB

门巴族

Ménbāzú

0.0008%

11,143

10,561

8,928

7,475

1964

Oroqen

Oroqen

OR

鄂伦春族

Èlúnchūnzú

0.0007%

9,168

8,659

8,216

6,965

1954

Derung

Derung

DR

独龙族

Dúlóngzú

0.0005%

7,310

6,930

7,431

5,816

1964

Hezhen15

Hezhen

HZ

赫哲族

Hèzhézú

0.0004%

5,373

5,354

4,664

4,245

1964

Lhoba

Lhoba

LB

珞巴族

Luòbāzú

0.0003%

4,237

3,682

2,970

2,312

1965

Tatars

Tatar

TT

塔塔尔族

Tǎtǎ'ěrzú

0.0003%

3,544

3,556

4,895

4,873

1954

Gaoshan16

Gaoshan

GS

高山族

Gāoshānzú

0.0002%

3,479

4,009

4,488

2,909

1954

Undistinguished

none

未识别民族

Wèi Shìbié Mínzú

0.0593%

836,488

640,101

734,438

749,341

Naturalized Citizen

none

外国人加入中国籍

Wàiguórén Jiārù Zhōngguójí

0.0012%

16,595

1,448

941

3,421

AGB 3304-91 "Names of ethnicities of China in romanization with codes";[8]

BThe population only includes mainland China;

CFor ethnic groups officially recognised in 1964 or earlier, this is the year of first inclusion in the national census, which were in 1954[9] and 1964;[10]

1Also included are the Chuanqing;

2Also includes Utsuls of Hainan, descended from Cham refugees;

3One subset of which is also known as Hmong and other include Hmu, Xong and A-Hmao. Some of the related languages and groups of peoples are not necessarily classified under the Miao umbrella, which makes this term somewhat vague;

4including Amdowa and Khampa, as well as roughly half of Pumi speakers, the remainder of whom are classified as a separate Pumi ethnicity;

5Also known as Kam;

6Also included are the Sangkong;

7This category includes several different Tai-speaking groups historically referred to as Bai-yi. In fact, the Dai nationality consists of speakers of varieties of Shan languages. For instance, the Tai Lue and Tai Nuea peoples are actually subgroups of the Shan people. Despite this, speakers of Bumang are also included in the Dai nationality;

8Also included are the Mosuo;

9Also included are the Qago (木佬人);

10Known as Kachin in Myanmar;

11Also included are the Then;

12They are not Tajik people but Pamiri people;

13The same group as Vietnamese or Kinh people in Sino-Vietnamese;

14Known as Palaung in Myanmar;

15The same group as Nanai on the Russian side of the border;

16A collective name for all Taiwanese aborigine groups in Taiwan. In fact, the numbers of Gaoshan in census covers only those who lives in mainland China (mainly in Fujian) and consists of Amis (autonym: Pangcah), Paiwan and Bunun peoples.[citation needed]

Taiwanese aborigines[edit]

Main article: Taiwanese indigenous peoples

The People's Republic of China government officially refers to all Taiwanese aborigines (Chinese: 原住民族; pinyin: Yuánzhùmínzú) as Gaoshan (Chinese: 高山族; pinyin: Gāoshānzú), whereas the Republic of China (Taiwan) recognizes 16 groups of Taiwanese aborigines.[11] The term Gaoshan has a different connotation in Taiwan than it does in mainland China.[clarification needed]

Unlisted ethnic groups[edit]

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

Main article: Unrecognized ethnic groups in China

Part of a poster in Beijing showing the 56 ethnic groups of China

The following ethnic groups living in China are not recognized by the Chinese government:

Äynu people – classified as Uyghurs

Altai people – classified as Mongols[12]

Fuyu Kyrgyz people – classified as Kyrgyz

Gejia people – classified as Miao

Bajia (八甲人; Bājiǎrén)

Deng people

Hu people – classified as Bulang

Khmu people – classified as Bulang

Kucong

Mảng people

Ili Turk people – classified as Uzbek

Sherpa people – classified as Tibetan

Tanka people, including Fuzhou Tanka

Tebbu people

Tuvans – classified as Mongols[13]

Waxiang people

Jewish people

Macanese people, mixed race Catholic Portuguese speakers who lived in Macau since 16th century of various ethnic origins

Utsuls – classified as Hui

During the Fifth National Population Census of the People's Republic of China held in 2000, 734,438 people on the mainland were recorded as belonging to "undistinguished ethnic groups"—of these, 97% resided in Guizhou, .[14]

Hong Kong and Macau[edit]

See also: Demographics of Hong Kong and Demographics of Macau

Hong Kong and Macau are special administrative regions within China. The governments of Hong Kong and Macau do not use the official PRC ethnic classification system, nor does the PRC's official classification system take ethnic groups in Hong Kong and Macau into account. Minority groups such as Western Europeans (mainly English and Portuguese), and Southern or Southeastern Asians (mainly Filipinos, Indians, Indonesians, Nepalese, and Pakistanis) live in Hong Kong.[15] Macau's main ethnic groups are of Chinese and Portuguese descent, but other ethnicities also live in the territory.[16]

Gallery[edit]

Han

Zhuang

Manchu

Hui

Miao

Uyghur

Tujia

Yi

Mongol

See also[edit]

China portal

Affirmative action in China

Demographics of China

Demographics of Taiwan

Local ethnic nationalism

Taiwanese people

Ethnic minorities in China

Han Chinese subgroups

Hua–Yi distinction

Languages of China

List of endangered languages in China

Kra–Dai ethnic groups in China

Taiwanese indigenous peoples

Unrecognized ethnic groups in China

Minzu (anthropology)

Zhonghua minzu

References[edit]

^ "Han Chinese proportion in China's population drops: census data". Xinhua News (English). 28 April 2011. Archived from the original on 11 July 2016. Retrieved 1 September 2015.

^ "index". www.stats.gov.cn.

^ "Expats in China: Nationalities and in which cities they settle".

^ Jarmuth, Anna (2020-09-22). "Ethnic Minorities and the Fight against Poverty in China: The Case of Yunnan". Institute for Security and Development Policy. Retrieved 2023-10-19.

^ Lai, Hongyi. "China's Ethnic Policies and Challenges" (PDF).

^ "White Paper 1999: Ethnic Minorities Policy in China". un.china-mission.gov.cn. Retrieved 2023-10-19.

^ 胡鸿保; 张丽梅 (2009). 民族识别原则的变化与民族人口 [Changes in Ethnic Identification Principles and Ethnic Population]. Southwest University for Nationalities University Press (in Chinese) (4).

^ GB 3304-91 Names of nationalities of China in romanization with codes Archived 2009-11-01 at the Wayback Machine.

^ First National Population Census of the People's Republic of China

^ Second National Population Census of the People's Republic of China

^ "Gov't officially recognizes two more aboriginal people groups". China Post. CNA. 27 June 2014. Archived from the original on 11 November 2014. Retrieved 13 December 2014.

^ Olson, James S. (1998). "Altai". An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of China. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. pp. 9–11. ISBN 0-313-28853-4.

^ Mongush, M. V. (1996). "Tuvans of Mongolia and China". International Journal of Central Asian Studies (1): 225–243.

^ 第五次人口普查数据(2000年). 表1—6. 省、自治区、直辖市分性别、民族的人口 ( Fifth National Population Census of the People's Republic of China (2000). Table 1-6: Population of provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities by ethnicity). (in Chinese)

^ Paul O'Connor (2018). "Ethnic Minorities and Ethnicity in Hong Kong". Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Hong Kong. Routledge. pp. 59–274. ISBN 9780367580605.

^ João de Pina Cabral. "THE 'ETHNIC' COMPOSITION OF MACAO". Cultural Bureau of Macau. Retrieved 2023-11-29.

Further reading[edit]

Olson, James S. (1998). An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of China. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-28853-4.

Schwars, Henry G. (1984). The Minorities of Northern China: A Survey.

External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ethnic groups in China.

"Chinese ethnic odyssey" - collection of articles from the People's Daily

Family album of Chinese 56 ethnic groups

nytimes.com

Map share of ethnic by county of China

Map share of dominate ethnic by county of China

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ethnic group, a social group or category of the population that, in a larger society, is set apart and bound together by common ties of race, language, nationality, or culture.Ethnic diversity is one form of the social complexity found in most contemporary societies. Historically it is the legacy of conquests that brought diverse peoples under the rule of a dominant group; of rulers who in their own interests imported peoples for their labour or their technical and business skills; of industrialization, which intensified the age-old pattern of migration for economic reasons; or of political and religious persecutions that drove people from their native lands.

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United States: Ethnic European Americans

Until the 20th century ethnic diversity posed no great problems for empires. Its chief historic significance has been and remains its relationship to the nation-state, whose primary goal is political unity, which tends to be identified with social unity. In theory, the nation-state and ethnic diversity are diametrically opposed, and on many occasions nation-states have attempted to solve the problem of ethnic diversity by the elimination or expulsion of ethnic groups—notable examples being the Nazi policy against the Jews during World War II, the expulsion of the Moors and Jews from 15th-century Spain, or the expulsion of the Arabs and East Indians from several newly independent African countries in the 1960s and ’70s.More common solutions have been assimilation or acculturation, whether forced, induced, or voluntary. Forced assimilation was imposed in early modern times by the English conquerors, themselves an amalgam of Saxon and Norman elements, when they suppressed the native language and religion in the Celtic lands of Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. Similar methods were employed by their French contemporaries as they extended their conquests into the langue d’oc region of southern Europe. Through considerably less brutal methods, the Chinese ethnic groups in Thailand and Indonesia have been legally induced to adopt the dominant culture through a process called “directed acculturation.”A variant of this process has been the more or less voluntary assimilation achieved in the United States under the rubric of “Americanization.” This is largely a result of the unusual opportunities for social and economic mobility in the United States and of the fact that for the European ethnic groups, in contrast to the racial minorities, residence in the United States was a matter of individual or familial choice, not conquest or slavery. But both public policy and public opinion also contributed to American assimilation.Another way of dealing with ethnic diversity, one that holds more promise for the future, is the development of some form of pluralism, which usually rests on a combination of toleration, interdependence, and separatism. One of the most notable long-term solutions has been that of Switzerland, where the three major ethnic groups are concentrated in separate cantons, each enjoying a large measure of local control within a democratic federation. Another, less stable federal pluralism is found in Canada, where the French Catholic province of Quebec is increasingly assertive about its desire for complete independence and forced acculturation of its own ethnic minorities.

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The political function of ethnicity is more important today than ever, as a result of the spread of doctrines of freedom, self-determination, and democracy throughout the world. In 19th-century Europe, these doctrines influenced various movements for the liberation of ethnic minorities from the old European empires and led to some partially successful attempts to establish nation-states along ethnic lines, as in the case of Poland and Italy. After World War II the rising tide of democratic aspirations among the colonial peoples of Asia and Africa led to the breakup of empires established by European conquerors, sometimes in areas of enormous ethnic complexity, without regard to ethnic considerations. The result was a proliferation of national states, some of which experienced local conflicts with ethnic-related causes. Most of the new countries in Asia were relatively homogeneous, but the majority of those in sub-Saharan Africa were composed of many relatively small ethnic groups whose members spoke different languages.

This article was most recently revised and updated by Elizabeth Prine Pauls.

Ethnicity and Minority Nationalities Since 1949 - Chinese Studies - Oxford Bibliographies

Ethnicity and Minority Nationalities Since 1949 - Chinese Studies - Oxford Bibliographies

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Ethnicity and Minority Nationalities Since 1949

IntroductionGeneral OverviewsSingle-Authored VolumesEdited or Multiauthored VolumesReference Works, Text Material, and AnthologiesJournalsTheory of EthnicityEconomy and Law among Minority NationalitiesLanguage, Education, Culture among Ethnic MinoritiesParticular Minorities or Minority AreasTheories of Ethnicity Relevant to Specific Ethnic Groups or RegionsEconomy and TourismSociety and CultureBooks Combining Tibet and XinjiangTibet and the TibetansHistoriesEdited BooksBibliographiesBiographies and AutobiographiesEducation, Gender, ReligionProtest and Other TopicsXinjiang and the UighursHistories and OverviewsEducation, Culture, and Other Specific Topics

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Ethnicity and Minority Nationalities Since 1949

byColin MackerrasLAST REVIEWED: 08 June 2017LAST MODIFIED: 24 July 2018DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199920082-0012

IntroductionThis article covers works about ethnicity in the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and minority nationalities since 1949 with an emphasis on the reform period since 1978. The Chinese state still follows Joseph Stalin’s definition of an ethnic group (Ch. minzu 民族), given in 1913, as “a historically constituted community of people, having a common territory, a common language, a common economic life and a common psychological makeup which expresses itself in a common culture” (Stalin, “Marxism and the National Question,” in Works, Vol. 2 [Moscow: Foreign Languages, 1953], p. 307). Under this definition, the Chinese state recognizes fifty-six ethnic groups in China—the majority Han and fifty-five minority nationalities (shaoshu minzu 少数民族, often also translated “ethnic minorities”). According to the 2010 census, which included only the mainland of China, not Hong Kong, Macao, or Taiwan, 8.49 percent of China’s population belonged to the fifty-five minorities, a total of 113,792,211 persons, while the Han were 91.51 percent. Although the minorities are thus only a small proportion of China’s total population, the territory they inhabit is about 60 percent of the mainland and includes most of the border areas, some of them extremely sensitive. For this reason, they are politically and strategically much more important than their numbers might suggest. Many of the minorities are quite similar to the Han in language and culture, but others are quite different both from the Han and from one another. Most speak Sino-Tibetan languages, which are thus related to Chinese, but others speak Altaic (including Turkic) languages, and a few speak languages belonging to other families. In terms of religion, the minorities are also very diverse, with the best-known internationally being Islam and the characteristic Buddhism of the Tibetans. As China has strengthened over the past decades, the issue of ethnic identity has become more important, while the Chinese state has insisted on its own territorial integrity and thus resisted all separatist movements with all the force at its command. The members of most minority nationalities are quite willing to integrate or even assimilate with the dominant Han and with the Chinese state. However, others have seen strong resistance movements; the outstanding examples are the Tibetans and the Uighurs, the latter being Muslims and Turkic. (This ethnonym is also spelled Uyghurs or Uygurs, but for consistency’s sake this article adopts the spelling “Uighurs” except in titles of works, in which case the original spelling is preserved.) Disturbances among these two ethnic groups have occurred periodically and, especially in the case of the Tibetans, they have created an international issue that bears not only on human rights but even on the status of Tibet.General OverviewsThe 1950s and 1960s saw the publication in China of numerous ethnographies and histories of ethnic minorities, almost all with the main focus on social and economic formations or pre-1949 history. Though based exclusively on the framework imposed by Joseph Stalin’s definition cited in the Introduction, the information they provided was extraordinarily rich and useful at a time when field research by Western scholars was all but impossible. There was also extensive work undertaken to identify the various ethnic minorities and their characteristics. Chinese ethnological scholarship was totally interrupted by the Cultural Revolution (from 1966 to 1976), but it became even more voluminous in the 1980s than it had been in the 1950s and 1960s, persisting into the 1990s and the 21st century. However, during the 1980s it became possible for non-Chinese scholars, especially anthropologists, not only to travel in the minority areas but also to carry out fieldwork there. Some of the literature deals with specific ethnic minorities, but there are also works considering some or all of the fifty-five recognized ethnic minorities as a collective whole. A very popular theme is the emergence of ethnic identity. Relations between ethnic minorities and the Han have changed greatly since reform, with ethnic identity and globalization pointing in opposite directions. Two ethnic groups that attract a substantial literature stemming from various factors, including strengthened ethnic identity and periodic disturbances aiming at independence or greater autonomy, are the Tibetans and the Uighurs, who, however, are also frequently considered in general works.

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Two ladies of ethnic minority groups [Photo by Chen Boyuan/China.org.cn]China is a unified nation consisting of many different ethnic groups. Fifty-six different ethnic groups make up the great Chinese national family. Because the Han people accounts for more than ninety percent of China's population, the remaining fifty-five groups are generally referred to as "ethnic minorities." Next to the majority Han, the Mongolian, Hui, Tibetan, and Uygur peoples comprise the largest ethnic groups. Although China's ethnic minorities do not account for a large portion of the population, they are distributed over a vast area, residing in every corner of China.Particularly since the implementation of China's opening and reform policy, the central government has increased investment in minority areas and accelerated their opening to the outside world. This has resulted in an upsurge of economic development in these areas. Each of China's ethnic minority groups possesses a distinctive culture. The Chinese government respects minority customs, and works to preserve, study, and collate the cultural artifacts of China's ethnic minority groups. The government vigorously supports the development of minority culture and the training of minority cultural workers, and fosters the development of traditional minority medicine.The relation among China's ethnic groups can be described as "overall integration, local concentration, mutual interaction." Concentrations of ethnic minorities reside within predominantly Han areas, and the Han people also reside in minority areas, indicating that there has been extensive exchanges among China's ethnic groups since ancient times. With the development of the market economy, interaction among ethnic groups has become even more active in the areas of government, economics, culture, daily life, and marriage. Linked by interdependence, mutual assistance, and joint development, their common goals and interests creating a deep sense of solidarity, China's ethnic groups resemble a great national family, together building Chinese civilization.

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11.1 Racial, Ethnic, and Minority Groups - Introduction to Sociology 3e | OpenStax

Racial, Ethnic, and Minority Groups - Introduction to Sociology 3e | OpenStaxSkip to ContentGo to accessibility pageKeyboard shortcuts menuIntroduction to Sociology 3e11.1 Racial, Ethnic, and Minority GroupsIntroduction to Sociology 3e11.1 Racial, Ethnic, and Minority GroupsSearchSearchCloseSearchContentsContentsHighlightsPrintTable of contentsPreface1

An Introduction to SociologyIntroduction1.1 What Is Sociology?1.2 The History of Sociology1.3 Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology1.4 Why Study Sociology?Key TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences2

Sociological ResearchIntroduction2.1 Approaches to Sociological Research2.2 Research Methods2.3 Ethical ConcernsKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences3

CultureIntroduction3.1 What Is Culture?3.2 Elements of Culture3.3 High, Low, Pop, Sub, Counter-culture and Cultural Change3.4 Theoretical Perspectives on CultureKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences4

Society and Social InteractionIntroduction4.1 Types of Societies4.2 Theoretical Perspectives on Society4.3 Social Constructions of RealityKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences5

SocializationIntroduction5.1 Theories of Self-Development5.2 Why Socialization Matters5.3 Agents of Socialization5.4 Socialization Across the Life CourseKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences6

Groups and OrganizationIntroduction6.1 Types of Groups6.2 Group Size and Structure6.3 Formal OrganizationsKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences7

Deviance, Crime, and Social ControlIntroduction7.1 Deviance and Control7.2 Theoretical Perspectives on Deviance and Crime7.3 Crime and the LawKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences8

Media and TechnologyIntroduction8.1 Technology Today8.2 Media and Technology in Society8.3 Global Implications of Media and Technology8.4 Theoretical Perspectives on Media and TechnologyKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences9

Social Stratification in the United StatesIntroduction9.1 What Is Social Stratification?9.2 Social Stratification and Mobility in the United States9.3 Global Stratification and Inequality9.4 Theoretical Perspectives on Social StratificationKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences10

Global InequalityIntroduction10.1 Global Stratification and Classification10.2 Global Wealth and Poverty10.3 Theoretical Perspectives on Global StratificationKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences11

Race and EthnicityIntroduction11.1 Racial, Ethnic, and Minority Groups11.2 Theoretical Perspectives on Race and Ethnicity11.3 Prejudice, Discrimination, and Racism11.4 Intergroup Relationships11.5 Race and Ethnicity in the United StatesKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences12

Gender, Sex, and SexualityIntroduction12.1 Sex, Gender, Identity, and Expression12.2 Gender and Gender Inequality12.3 SexualityKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences13

Aging and the ElderlyIntroduction13.1 Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society13.2 The Process of Aging13.3 Challenges Facing the Elderly13.4 Theoretical Perspectives on AgingKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences14

Relationships, Marriage, and FamilyIntroduction14.1 What Is Marriage? What Is a Family?14.2 Variations in Family Life14.3 Challenges Families FaceKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences15

ReligionIntroduction15.1 The Sociological Approach to Religion15.2 World Religions15.3 Religion in the United StatesKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences16

EducationIntroduction16.1 Education around the World16.2 Theoretical Perspectives on Education16.3 Issues in EducationKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences17

Government and PoliticsIntroduction17.1 Power and Authority17.2 Forms of Government17.3 Politics in the United States17.4 Theoretical Perspectives on Government and PowerKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences18

Work and the EconomyIntroduction to Work and the Economy18.1 Economic Systems18.2 Globalization and the Economy18.3 Work in the United StatesKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences19

Health and MedicineIntroduction19.1 The Social Construction of Health19.2 Global Health19.3 Health in the United States19.4 Comparative Health and Medicine19.5 Theoretical Perspectives on Health and MedicineKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences20

Population, Urbanization, and the EnvironmentIntroduction20.1 Demography and Population20.2 Urbanization20.3 The Environment and SocietyKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerFurther ResearchReferences21

Social Movements and Social ChangeIntroduction to Social Movements and Social Change21.1 Collective Behavior21.2 Social Movements21.3 Social ChangeKey TermsSection SummarySection QuizShort AnswerReferencesAnswer KeyChapter 1Chapter 2Chapter 3Chapter 4Chapter 5Chapter 6Chapter 7Chapter 8Chapter 9Chapter 10Chapter 11Chapter 12Chapter 13Chapter 14Chapter 15Chapter 16Chapter 17Chapter 18Chapter 19Chapter 20Chapter 21IndexLearning ObjectivesBy the end of this section, you should be able to:

Understand the difference between race and ethnicity

Define a majority group (dominant group)

Define a minority group (subordinate group)

While many students first entering a sociology classroom are accustomed to conflating the terms “race,” “ethnicity,” and “minority group,” these three terms have distinct meanings for sociologists. The idea of race refers to superficial physical differences that a particular society considers significant, while ethnicity describes shared culture. And the term "minority groups" describe groups that are subordinate, or that lack power in society regardless of skin color or country of origin. For example, in modern U.S. history, the elderly might be considered a minority group due to a diminished status that results from popular prejudice and discrimination against them. Ten percent of nursing home staff admitted to physically abusing an elderly person in the past year, and 40 percent admitted to committing psychological abuse (World Health Organization 2011). In this chapter we focus on racial and ethnic minorities.

What Is Race?

A human race is a grouping of humankind based on shared physical or social qualities that can vary from one society to another.

Historically, the concept of race has changed across cultures and eras, and has eventually become less connected with ancestral and familial ties, and more concerned with superficial physical characteristics. In the past, theorists developed categories of race based on various geographic regions, ethnicities, skin colors, and more. Their labels for racial groups have connoted regions or skin tones, for example.

German physician, zoologist, and anthropologist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752-1840) introduced one of the famous groupings by studying human skulls. Blumenbach divided humans into five races (MacCord 2014):

Caucasian or White race: people of European, Middle Eastern, and North African origin

Ethiopian or Black race: people of sub-Saharan Africans origin (sometimes spelled Aethiopian)

Malayan or Brown race: people of Southeast Asian origin and Pacific Islanders

Mongolian or Yellow race: people of all East Asian and some Central Asian origin

American or Red race: people of North American origin or American Indians

Over time, descriptions of race like Blumenbach's have fallen into disuse, and the social construction of race is a more accepted way of understanding racial categories. Social science organizations including the American Association of Anthropologists, the American Sociological Association, and the American Psychological Association have all officially rejected explanations of race like those listed above. Research in this school of thought suggests that race is not biologically identifiable and that previous racial categories were based on pseudoscience; they were often used to justify racist practices (Omi and Winant 1994; Graves 2003). For example, some people used to think that genetics of race determined intelligence. While this idea was mostly put to rest in the later 20th Century, it resurged several times in the past 50 years, including the widely read and cited 1994 book, The Bell Curve. Researchers have since provided substantial evidence that refutes a biological-racial basis for intelligence, including the widespread closing of IQ gaps as Black people gained more access to education (Dickens 2006). This research and other confirming studies indicate that any generally lower IQ among a racial group was more about nurture than nature, to put it into the terms of the Socialization chapter.

While many of the historical considerations of race have been corrected in favor of more accurate and sensitive descriptions, some of the older terms remain. For example, it is generally unacceptable and insulting to refer to Asian people or Native American people with color-based terminology, but it is acceptable to refer to White and Black people in that way. In 2020, a number of publications announced that they would begin capitalizing the names of races, though not everyone used the same approach (Seipel 2020). This practice comes nearly a hundred years after sociologist and leader W.E.B. Du Bois drove newsrooms to capitalize "Negro," the widely used term at the time. And, finally, some members of racial groups (or ethnic groups, which are described below) "reclaim" terms previously used to insult them (Rao 2018). These examples are more evidence of the social construction of race, and our evolving relationships among people and groups.

What Is Ethnicity?

Ethnicity is sometimes used interchangeably with race, but they are very different concepts. Ethnicity is based on shared culture—the practices, norms, values, and beliefs of a group that might include shared language, religion, and traditions, among other commonalities. Like race, the term ethnicity is difficult to describe and its meaning has changed over time. And as with race, individuals may be identified or self-identify with ethnicities in complex, even contradictory, ways. For example, ethnic groups such as Irish, Italian American, Russian, Jewish, and Serbian might all be groups whose members are predominantly included in the “White” racial category. Ethnicity, like race, continues to be an identification method that individuals and institutions use today—whether through the census, diversity initiatives, nondiscrimination laws, or simply in personal day-to-day relations.

In some cases, ethnicity is incorrectly used as a synonym for national origin, but those constructions are technically different. National origin (itself sometimes confused with nationality) has to do with the geographic and political associations with a person's birthplace or residence. But people from a nation can be of a wide range of ethnicities, often unknown to people outside of the region, which leads to misconceptions. For example, someone in the United States may, with no ill-intent, refer to all Vietnamese people as an ethnic group. But Vietnam is home to 54 formally recognized ethnic groups.

Adding to the complexity: Sometimes, either to build bridges between ethnic groups, promote civil rights, gain recognition, or other reasons, diverse but closely associated ethnic groups may develop a "pan-ethnic" group. For example, the various ethnic groups and national origins of people from Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, and adjoining nations, who may share cultural, linguistic, or other values, may group themselves together in a collective identity. If they do so, they may not seek to erase their individual ethnicities, but finding the correct description and association can be challenging and depend on context. The large number of people who make up the Asian American community may embrace their collective identity in the context of the United States. However, that embrace may depend on people's ages, and may be expressed differently when speaking to different populations (Park 2008). For example, someone who identifies as Asian American while at home in Houston may not refer to themselves as such when they visit extended family in Japan. In a similar manner, a grouping of people from Mexico, Central America and South America—often referred to as Latinx, Latina, or Latino—may be embraced by some and rejected by others in the group (Martinez 2019).

What Are Minority Groups?

Sociologist Louis Wirth (1945) defined a minority group as “any group of people who, because of their physical or cultural characteristics, are singled out from the others in the society in which they live for differential and unequal treatment, and who therefore regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination.” The term minority connotes discrimination, and in its sociological use, the term subordinate group can be used interchangeably with the term minority group, while the term dominant group is often substituted for the group that represents rulers or is in the majority who can access power and privilege in a given society. These definitions correlate to the concept that the dominant group is that which holds the most power in a given society, while subordinate groups are those who lack power compared to the dominant group.

Note that being a numerical minority is not a characteristic of being a minority group; sometimes larger groups can be considered minority groups due to their lack of power. It is the lack of power that is the predominant characteristic of a minority, or subordinate group. For example, consider apartheid in South Africa, in which a numerical majority (the Black inhabitants of the country) were exploited and oppressed by the White minority.

According to Charles Wagley and Marvin Harris (1958), a minority group is distinguished by five characteristics: (1) unequal treatment and less power over their lives, (2) distinguishing physical or cultural traits like skin color or language, (3) involuntary membership in the group, (4) awareness of subordination, and (5) high rate of in-group marriage. Additional examples of minority groups might include the LGBTQ community, religious practitioners whose faith is not widely practiced where they live, and people with disabilities.

Scapegoat theory, developed initially from Dollard’s (1939) Frustration-Aggression theory, suggests that the dominant group will displace its unfocused aggression onto a subordinate group. History has shown us many examples of the scapegoating of a subordinate group. An example from the last century is the way Adolf Hitler blamed the Jewish population for Germany’s social and economic problems. In the United States, recent immigrants have frequently been the scapegoat for the nation’s—or an individual’s—woes. Many states have enacted laws to disenfranchise immigrants; these laws are popular because they let the dominant group scapegoat a subordinate group.

Multiple Identities

Figure

11.2

Golfer Tiger Woods has Chinese, Thai, African American, Native American, and Dutch heritage. Individuals with multiple ethnic backgrounds are becoming more common. (Credit: familymwr/flickr)

Prior to the twentieth century, racial intermarriage (referred to as miscegenation) was extremely rare, and in many places, illegal. While the sexual subordination of enslaved people did result in children of mixed race, these children were usually considered Black, and therefore, property. There was no concept of multiple racial identities with the possible exception of the Creole. Creole society developed in the port city of New Orleans, where a mixed-race culture grew from French and African inhabitants. Unlike in other parts of the country, “Creoles of color” had greater social, economic, and educational opportunities than most African Americans.

Increasingly during the modern era, the removal of miscegenation laws and a trend toward equal rights and legal protection against racism have steadily reduced the social stigma attached to racial exogamy (exogamy refers to marriage outside a person’s core social unit). It is now common for the children of racially mixed parents to acknowledge and celebrate their various ethnic identities. Golfer Tiger Woods, for instance, has Chinese, Thai, African American, Native American, and Dutch heritage; he jokingly refers to his ethnicity as “Cablinasian,” a term he coined to combine several of his ethnic backgrounds. While this is the trend, it is not yet evident in all aspects of our society. For example, the U.S. Census only recently added additional categories for people to identify themselves, such as non-White Hispanic. A growing number of people chose multiple races to describe themselves on the 2020 Census, indicating that individuals have multiple identities.

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Ethnicity - Wikipedia

Ethnicity - Wikipedia

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1Terminology

2Definitions and conceptual history

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2.1Approaches to understanding ethnicity

2.2Ethnicity theory in the United States

3Ethnicity and nationality

4Ethnicity and race

5Ethno-national conflict

6Ethnic groups by continent

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6.1Africa

6.2Asia

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6.6Oceania

6.6.1Australia

7See also

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Ethnicity

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Socially defined category of people who identify with each other

For other uses, see Ethnicity (disambiguation).

"Ethnicities" redirects here. For the academic journal, see Ethnicities (journal).

Part of a series onAnthropology

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An ethnicity or ethnic group is a grouping of people who identify with each other on the basis of perceived shared attributes that distinguish them from other groups. Those attributes can include a common nation of origin, or common sets of ancestry, traditions, language, history, society, religion, or social treatment.[1][2] The term ethnicity is often used interchangeably with the term nation, particularly in cases of ethnic nationalism.

Ethnicity may be construed as an inherited or societally imposed construct. Ethnic membership tends to be defined by a shared cultural heritage, ancestry, origin myth, history, homeland, language, dialect, religion, mythology, folklore, ritual, cuisine, dressing style, art, or physical appearance. Ethnic groups may share a narrow or broad spectrum of genetic ancestry, depending on group identification, with many groups having mixed genetic ancestry.[3][4][5]

By way of language shift, acculturation, adoption, and religious conversion, individuals or groups may over time shift from one ethnic group to another. Ethnic groups may be divided into subgroups or tribes, which over time may become separate ethnic groups themselves due to endogamy or physical isolation from the parent group. Conversely, formerly separate ethnicities can merge to form a pan-ethnicity and may eventually merge into one single ethnicity. Whether through division or amalgamation, the formation of a separate ethnic identity is referred to as ethnogenesis.

Although both organic and performative criteria characterise ethnic groups, debate in the past has dichotomised between primordialism and constructivism. Earlier 20th-century "Primordialists" viewed ethnic groups as real phenomena whose distinct characteristics have endured since the distant past.[6] Perspectives that developed after the 1960s increasingly viewed ethnic groups as social constructs, with identity assigned by societal rules.[7]

Terminology[edit]

The term ethnic is derived from the Greek word ἔθνος ethnos (more precisely, from the adjective ἐθνικός ethnikos,[8] which was loaned into Latin as ethnicus). The inherited English language term for this concept is folk, used alongside the latinate people since the late Middle English period.

In Early Modern English and until the mid-19th century, ethnic was used to mean heathen or pagan (in the sense of disparate "nations" which did not yet participate in the Christian oikumene), as the Septuagint used ta ethne ("the nations") to translate the Hebrew goyim "the foreign nations, non-Hebrews, non-Jews".[9] The Greek term in early antiquity (Homeric Greek) could refer to any large group, a host of men, a band of comrades as well as a swarm or flock of animals. In Classical Greek, the term took on a meaning comparable to the concept now expressed by "ethnic group", mostly translated as "nation, tribe, a unique people group"; only in Hellenistic Greek did the term tend to become further narrowed to refer to "foreign" or "barbarous" nations in particular (whence the later meaning "heathen, pagan").[10]

In the 19th century, the term came to be used in the sense of "peculiar to a tribe, race, people or nation", in a return to the original Greek meaning. The sense of "different cultural groups", and in American English "tribal, racial, cultural or national minority group" arises in the 1930s to 1940s,[11] serving as a replacement of the term race which had earlier taken this sense but was now becoming deprecated due to its association with ideological racism.

The abstract ethnicity had been used as a stand-in for "paganism" in the 18th century, but now came to express the meaning of an "ethnic character" (first recorded 1953).

The term ethnic group was first recorded in 1935 and entered the Oxford English Dictionary in 1972.[12] Depending on context, the term nationality may be used either synonymously with ethnicity or synonymously with citizenship (in a sovereign state). The process that results in emergence of an ethnicity is called ethnogenesis, a term in use in ethnological literature since about 1950. The term may also be used with the connotation of something unique and unusually exotic (cf. "an ethnic restaurant", etc.), generally related to cultures of more recent immigrants, who arrived after the dominant population of an area was established.

Depending on which source of group identity is emphasized to define membership, the following types of (often mutually overlapping) groups can be identified:

Ethno-linguistic, emphasizing shared language, dialect (and possibly script) – example: French Canadians

Ethno-national, emphasizing a shared polity or sense of national identity – example: Austrians

Ethno-racial, emphasizing shared physical appearance based on phenotype  – example: African Americans

Ethno-regional, emphasizing a distinct local sense of belonging stemming from relative geographic isolation – example: South Islanders of New Zealand

Ethno-religious, emphasizing shared affiliation with a particular religion, denomination or sect – example: Sikhs

Ethno-cultural, emphasizing shared culture or tradition, often overlapping with other forms of ethnicity – example: Travellers

In many cases, more than one aspect determines membership: for instance, Armenian ethnicity can be defined by Armenian citizenship, having Armenian heritage, native use of the Armenian language, or membership of the Armenian Apostolic Church.

Definitions and conceptual history[edit]

A group of ethnic Bengalis in Dhaka, Bangladesh. The Bengalis form the third-largest ethnic group in the world after the Han Chinese and Arabs.[13]

The Javanese people of Indonesia are the largest Austronesian ethnic group.

Ethnography begins in classical antiquity; after early authors like Anaximander and Hecataeus of Miletus, Herodotus laid the foundation of both historiography and ethnography of the ancient world c. 480 BC. The Greeks had developed a concept of their own ethnicity, which they grouped under the name of Hellenes. Herodotus (8.144.2) gave a famous account of what defined Greek (Hellenic) ethnic identity in his day, enumerating

shared descent (ὅμαιμον – homaimon, "of the same blood"),[14]

shared language (ὁμόγλωσσον – homoglōsson, "speaking the same language"),[15]

shared sanctuaries and sacrifices (Greek: θεῶν ἱδρύματά τε κοινὰ καὶ θυσίαι – theōn hidrumata te koina kai thusiai),[16]

shared customs (Greek: ἤθεα ὁμότροπα – ēthea homotropa, "customs of like fashion").[17][18][19]

Whether ethnicity qualifies as a cultural universal is to some extent dependent on the exact definition used. Many social scientists,[20] such as anthropologists Fredrik Barth and Eric Wolf, do not consider ethnic identity to be universal. They regard ethnicity as a product of specific kinds of inter-group interactions, rather than an essential quality inherent to human groups.[21][irrelevant citation]

According to Thomas Hylland Eriksen, the study of ethnicity was dominated by two distinct debates until recently.

One is between "primordialism" and "instrumentalism". In the primordialist view, the participant perceives ethnic ties collectively, as an externally given, even coercive, social bond.[22] The instrumentalist approach, on the other hand, treats ethnicity primarily as an ad hoc element of a political strategy, used as a resource for interest groups for achieving secondary goals such as, for instance, an increase in wealth, power, or status.[23][24] This debate is still an important point of reference in Political science, although most scholars' approaches fall between the two poles.[25]

The second debate is between "constructivism" and "essentialism". Constructivists view national and ethnic identities as the product of historical forces, often recent, even when the identities are presented as old.[26][27] Essentialists view such identities as ontological categories defining social actors.[28][29]

According to Eriksen, these debates have been superseded, especially in anthropology, by scholars' attempts to respond to increasingly politicized forms of self-representation by members of different ethnic groups and nations. This is in the context of debates over multiculturalism in countries, such as the United States and Canada, which have large immigrant populations from many different cultures, and post-colonialism in the Caribbean and South Asia.[30]

Max Weber maintained that ethnic groups were künstlich (artificial, i.e. a social construct) because they were based on a subjective belief in shared Gemeinschaft (community). Secondly, this belief in shared Gemeinschaft did not create the group; the group created the belief. Third, group formation resulted from the drive to monopolize power and status. This was contrary to the prevailing naturalist belief of the time, which held that socio-cultural and behavioral differences between peoples stemmed from inherited traits and tendencies derived from common descent, then called "race".[31]

Another influential theoretician of ethnicity was Fredrik Barth, whose "Ethnic Groups and Boundaries" from 1969 has been described as instrumental in spreading the usage of the term in social studies in the 1980s and 1990s.[32] Barth went further than Weber in stressing the constructed nature of ethnicity. To Barth, ethnicity was perpetually negotiated and renegotiated by both external ascription and internal self-identification. Barth's view is that ethnic groups are not discontinuous cultural isolates or logical a priori to which people naturally belong. He wanted to part with anthropological notions of cultures as bounded entities, and ethnicity as primordialist bonds, replacing it with a focus on the interface between groups. "Ethnic Groups and Boundaries", therefore, is a focus on the interconnectedness of ethnic identities. Barth writes: "... categorical ethnic distinctions do not depend on an absence of mobility, contact, and information, but do entail social processes of exclusion and incorporation whereby discrete categories are maintained despite changing participation and membership in the course of individual life histories."[citation needed]

In 1978, anthropologist Ronald Cohen claimed that the identification of "ethnic groups" in the usage of social scientists often reflected inaccurate labels more than indigenous realities:

... the named ethnic identities we accept, often unthinkingly, as basic givens in the literature are often arbitrarily, or even worse inaccurately, imposed.[32]

In this way, he pointed to the fact that identification of an ethnic group by outsiders, e.g. anthropologists, may not coincide with the self-identification of the members of that group. He also described that in the first decades of usage, the term ethnicity had often been used in lieu of older terms such as "cultural" or "tribal" when referring to smaller groups with shared cultural systems and shared heritage, but that "ethnicity" had the added value of being able to describe the commonalities between systems of group identity in both tribal and modern societies. Cohen also suggested that claims concerning "ethnic" identity (like earlier claims concerning "tribal" identity) are often colonialist practices and effects of the relations between colonized peoples and nation-states.[32]

According to Paul James, formations of identity were often changed and distorted by colonization, but identities are not made out of nothing:

Categorizations about identity, even when codified and hardened into clear typologies by processes of colonization, state formation or general modernizing processes, are always full of tensions and contradictions. Sometimes these contradictions are destructive, but they can also be creative and positive.[33]

Social scientists have thus focused on how, when, and why different markers of ethnic identity become salient. Thus, anthropologist Joan Vincent observed that ethnic boundaries often have a mercurial character.[34] Ronald Cohen concluded that ethnicity is "a series of nesting dichotomizations of inclusiveness and exclusiveness".[32] He agrees with Joan Vincent's observation that (in Cohen's paraphrase) "Ethnicity ... can be narrowed or broadened in boundary terms in relation to the specific needs of political mobilization.[32] This may be why descent is sometimes a marker of ethnicity, and sometimes not: which diacritic of ethnicity is salient depends on whether people are scaling ethnic boundaries up or down, and whether they are scaling them up or down depends generally on the political situation.

Kanchan Chandra rejects the expansive definitions of ethnic identity (such as those that include common culture, common language, common history and common territory), choosing instead to define ethnic identity narrowly as a subset of identity categories determined by the belief of common descent.[35] Jóhanna Birnir similarly defines ethnicity as "group self-identification around a characteristic that is very difficult or even impossible to change, such as language, race, or location."[36]

Approaches to understanding ethnicity[edit]

Different approaches to understanding ethnicity have been used by different social scientists when trying to understand the nature of ethnicity as a factor in human life and society. As Jonathan M. Hall observes, World War II was a turning point in ethnic studies. The consequences of Nazi racism discouraged essentialist interpretations of ethnic groups and race. Ethnic groups came to be defined as social rather than biological entities. Their coherence was attributed to shared myths, descent, kinship, a commonplace of origin, language, religion, customs, and national character. So, ethnic groups are conceived as mutable rather than stable, constructed in discursive practices rather than written in the genes.[37]

Examples of various approaches are primordialism, essentialism, perennialism, constructivism, modernism, and instrumentalism.

"Primordialism", holds that ethnicity has existed at all times of human history and that modern ethnic groups have historical continuity into the far past. For them, the idea of ethnicity is closely linked to the idea of nations and is rooted in the pre-Weber understanding of humanity as being divided into primordially existing groups rooted by kinship and biological heritage.

"Essentialist primordialism" further holds that ethnicity is an a priori fact of human existence, that ethnicity precedes any human social interaction and that it is unchanged by it. This theory sees ethnic groups as natural, not just as historical. It also has problems dealing with the consequences of intermarriage, migration and colonization for the composition of modern-day multi-ethnic societies.[38]

"Kinship primordialism" holds that ethnic communities are extensions of kinship units, basically being derived by kinship or clan ties where the choices of cultural signs (language, religion, traditions) are made exactly to show this biological affinity. In this way, the myths of common biological ancestry that are a defining feature of ethnic communities are to be understood as representing actual biological history. A problem with this view on ethnicity is that it is more often than not the case that mythic origins of specific ethnic groups directly contradict the known biological history of an ethnic community.[38]

"Geertz's primordialism", notably espoused by anthropologist Clifford Geertz, argues that humans in general attribute an overwhelming power to primordial human "givens" such as blood ties, language, territory, and cultural differences. In Geertz' opinion, ethnicity is not in itself primordial but humans perceive it as such because it is embedded in their experience of the world.[38]

"Perennialism", an approach that is primarily concerned with nationhood but tends to see nations and ethnic communities as basically the same phenomenon holds that the nation, as a type of social and political organization, is of an immemorial or "perennial" character.[39] Smith (1999) distinguishes two variants: "continuous perennialism", which claims that particular nations have existed for very long periods, and "recurrent perennialism", which focuses on the emergence, dissolution and reappearance of nations as a recurring aspect of human history.[40]

"Perpetual perennialism" holds that specific ethnic groups have existed continuously throughout history.

"Situational perennialism" holds that nations and ethnic groups emerge, change and vanish through the course of history. This view holds that the concept of ethnicity is a tool used by political groups to manipulate resources such as wealth, power, territory or status in their particular groups' interests. Accordingly, ethnicity emerges when it is relevant as a means of furthering emergent collective interests and changes according to political changes in society. Examples of a perennialist interpretation of ethnicity are also found in Barth and Seidner who see ethnicity as ever-changing boundaries between groups of people established through ongoing social negotiation and interaction.

"Instrumentalist perennialism", while seeing ethnicity primarily as a versatile tool that identified different ethnics groups and limits through time, explains ethnicity as a mechanism of social stratification, meaning that ethnicity is the basis for a hierarchical arrangement of individuals. According to Donald Noel, a sociologist who developed a theory on the origin of ethnic stratification, ethnic stratification is a "system of stratification wherein some relatively fixed group membership (e.g., race, religion, or nationality) is used as a major criterion for assigning social positions".[41] Ethnic stratification is one of many different types of social stratification, including stratification based on socio-economic status, race, or gender. According to Donald Noel, ethnic stratification will emerge only when specific ethnic groups are brought into contact with one another, and only when those groups are characterized by a high degree of ethnocentrism, competition, and differential power. Ethnocentrism is the tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one's own culture, and to downgrade all other groups outside one's own culture. Some sociologists, such as Lawrence Bobo and Vincent Hutchings, say the origin of ethnic stratification lies in individual dispositions of ethnic prejudice, which relates to the theory of ethnocentrism.[42] Continuing with Noel's theory, some degree of differential power must be present for the emergence of ethnic stratification. In other words, an inequality of power among ethnic groups means "they are of such unequal power that one is able to impose its will upon another".[41] In addition to differential power, a degree of competition structured along ethnic lines is a prerequisite to ethnic stratification as well. The different ethnic groups must be competing for some common goal, such as power or influence, or a material interest, such as wealth or territory. Lawrence Bobo and Vincent Hutchings propose that competition is driven by self-interest and hostility, and results in inevitable stratification and conflict.[42]

"Constructivism" sees both primordialist and perennialist views as basically flawed,[42] and rejects the notion of ethnicity as a basic human condition. It holds that ethnic groups are only products of human social interaction, maintained only in so far as they are maintained as valid social constructs in societies.

"Modernist constructivism" correlates the emergence of ethnicity with the movement towards nation states beginning in the early modern period.[43] Proponents of this theory, such as Eric Hobsbawm, argue that ethnicity and notions of ethnic pride, such as nationalism, are purely modern inventions, appearing only in the modern period of world history. They hold that prior to this ethnic homogeneity was not considered an ideal or necessary factor in the forging of large-scale societies.

Ethnicity is an important means by which people may identify with a larger group. Many social scientists, such as anthropologists Fredrik Barth and Eric Wolf, do not consider ethnic identity to be universal. They regard ethnicity as a product of specific kinds of inter-group interactions, rather than an essential quality inherent to human groups.[21] The process that results in emergence of such identification is called ethnogenesis. Members of an ethnic group, on the whole, claim cultural continuities over time, although historians and cultural anthropologists have documented that many of the values, practices, and norms that imply continuity with the past are of relatively recent invention.[44][45]

Ethnic groups can form a cultural mosaic in a society. That could be in a city like New York City or Trieste, but also the fallen monarchy of the Austro-Hungarian Empire or the United States. Current topics are in particular social and cultural differentiation, multilingualism, competing identity offers, multiple cultural identities and the formation of Salad bowl and melting pot.[46][47][48][49] Ethnic groups differ from other social groups, such as subcultures, interest groups or social classes, because they emerge and change over historical periods (centuries) in a process known as ethnogenesis, a period of several generations of endogamy resulting in common ancestry (which is then sometimes cast in terms of a mythological narrative of a founding figure); ethnic identity is reinforced by reference to "boundary markers" – characteristics said to be unique to the group which set it apart from other groups.[50][51][52][53][54][55]

Ethnicity theory in the United States[edit]

Ethnicity theory argues that race is a social category and is only one of several factors in determining ethnicity. Other criteria include "religion, language, 'customs', nationality, and political identification".[56] This theory was put forward by sociologist Robert E. Park in the 1920s. It is based on the notion of "culture".

This theory was preceded by more than 100 years during which biological essentialism was the dominant paradigm on race. Biological essentialism is the belief that some races, specifically white Europeans in western versions of the paradigm, are biologically superior and other races, specifically non-white races in western debates, are inherently inferior. This view arose as a way to justify enslavement of African Americans and genocide of Native Americans in a society that was officially founded on freedom for all. This was a notion that developed slowly and came to be a preoccupation with scientists, theologians, and the public. Religious institutions asked questions about whether there had been multiple creations of races (polygenesis) and whether God had created lesser races. Many of the foremost scientists of the time took up the idea of racial difference and found that white Europeans were superior.[57]

The ethnicity theory was based on the assimilation model. Park outlined four steps to assimilation: contact, conflict, accommodation, and assimilation. Instead of attributing the marginalized status of people of color in the United States to their inherent biological inferiority, he attributed it to their failure to assimilate into American culture. They could become equal if they abandoned their inferior cultures.

Michael Omi and Howard Winant's theory of racial formation directly confronts both the premises and the practices of ethnicity theory. They argue in Racial Formation in the United States that the ethnicity theory was exclusively based on the immigration patterns of the white population and did take into account the unique experiences of non-whites in the United States.[58] While Park's theory identified different stages in the immigration process – contact, conflict, struggle, and as the last and best response, assimilation – it did so only for white communities.[58] The ethnicity paradigm neglected the ways in which race can complicate a community's interactions with social and political structures, especially upon contact.

Assimilation – shedding the particular qualities of a native culture for the purpose of blending in with a host culture – did not work for some groups as a response to racism and discrimination, though it did for others.[58] Once the legal barriers to achieving equality had been dismantled, the problem of racism became the sole responsibility of already disadvantaged communities.[59] It was assumed that if a Black or Latino community was not "making it" by the standards that had been set by whites, it was because that community did not hold the right values or beliefs, or were stubbornly resisting dominant norms because they did not want to fit in. Omi and Winant's critique of ethnicity theory explains how looking to cultural defect as the source of inequality ignores the "concrete sociopolitical dynamics within which racial phenomena operate in the U.S."[60] It prevents critical examination of the structural components of racism and encourages a "benign neglect" of social inequality.[60]

Ethnicity and nationality[edit]

Further information: Nation state and minority group

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In some cases, especially involving transnational migration or colonial expansion, ethnicity is linked to nationality. Anthropologists and historians, following the modernist understanding of ethnicity as proposed by Ernest Gellner[61] and Benedict Anderson[62] see nations and nationalism as developing with the rise of the modern state system in the 17th century. They culminated in the rise of "nation-states" in which the presumptive boundaries of the nation coincided (or ideally coincided) with state boundaries.

Thus, in the West, the notion of ethnicity, like race and nation, developed in the context of European colonial expansion, when mercantilism and capitalism were promoting global movements of populations at the same time state boundaries were being more clearly and rigidly defined.

In the 19th century, modern states generally sought legitimacy through their claim to represent "nations". Nation-states, however, invariably include populations who have been excluded from national life for one reason or another. Members of excluded groups, consequently, will either demand inclusion based on equality or seek autonomy, sometimes even to the extent of complete political separation in their nation-state.[63] Under these conditions when people moved from one state to another,[64] or one state conquered or colonized peoples beyond its national boundaries – ethnic groups were formed by people who identified with one nation, but lived in another state.

Multi-ethnic states can be the result of two opposite events, either the recent creation of state borders at variance with traditional tribal territories, or the recent immigration of ethnic minorities into a former nation-state.

Examples for the first case are found throughout Africa, where countries created during decolonization inherited arbitrary colonial borders, but also in European countries such as Belgium or United Kingdom. Examples for the second case are countries such as Netherlands, which were relatively ethnically homogeneous when they attained statehood but have received significant immigration in the 17th century and even more so in the second half of the 20th century. States such as the United Kingdom, France and Switzerland comprised distinct ethnic groups from their formation and have likewise experienced substantial immigration, resulting in what has been termed "multicultural" societies, especially in large cities.

The states of the New World were multi-ethnic from the onset, as they were formed as colonies imposed on existing indigenous populations.

In recent decades, feminist scholars (most notably Nira Yuval-Davis)[65] have drawn attention to the fundamental ways in which women participate in the creation and reproduction of ethnic and national categories. Though these categories are usually discussed as belonging to the public, political sphere, they are upheld within the private, family sphere to a great extent.[66] It is here that women act not just as biological reproducers but also as "cultural carriers", transmitting knowledge and enforcing behaviors that belong to a specific collectivity.[67] Women also often play a significant symbolic role in conceptions of nation or ethnicity, for example in the notion that "women and children" constitute the kernel of a nation which must be defended in times of conflict, or in iconic figures such as Britannia or Marianne.

Ethnicity and race[edit]

The racial diversity of Asia's ethnic groups (original caption: Asiatiska folk), Nordisk familjebok (1904)

Ethnicity is used as a matter of cultural identity of a group, often based on shared ancestry, language, and cultural traditions, while race is applied as a taxonomic grouping, based on physical similarities among groups. Race is a more controversial subject than ethnicity, due to common political use of the term.[citation needed] Ramón Grosfoguel (University of California, Berkeley) argues that "racial/ethnic identity" is one concept and concepts of race and ethnicity cannot be used as separate and autonomous categories.[68]

Before Weber (1864–1920), race and ethnicity were primarily seen as two aspects of the same thing. Around 1900 and before, the primordialist understanding of ethnicity predominated: cultural differences between peoples were seen as being the result of inherited traits and tendencies.[69] With Weber's introduction of the idea of ethnicity as a social construct, race and ethnicity became more divided from each other.

In 1950, the UNESCO statement "The Race Question", signed by some of the internationally renowned scholars of the time (including Ashley Montagu, Claude Lévi-Strauss, Gunnar Myrdal, Julian Huxley, etc.), said:

National, religious, geographic, linguistic and cultural groups do not necessarily coincide with racial groups: and the cultural traits of such groups have no demonstrated genetic connection with racial traits. Because serious errors of this kind are habitually committed when the term "race" is used in popular parlance, it would be better when speaking of human races to drop the term "race" altogether and speak of "ethnic groups".[70]

In 1982, anthropologist David Craig Griffith summed up forty years of ethnographic research, arguing that racial and ethnic categories are symbolic markers for different ways people from different parts of the world have been incorporated into a global economy:

The opposing interests that divide the working classes are further reinforced through appeals to "racial" and "ethnic" distinctions. Such appeals serve to allocate different categories of workers to rungs on the scale of labor markets, relegating stigmatized populations to the lower levels and insulating the higher echelons from competition from below. Capitalism did not create all the distinctions of ethnicity and race that function to set off categories of workers from one another. It is, nevertheless, the process of labor mobilization under capitalism that imparts to these distinctions their effective values.[71]

According to Wolf, racial categories were constructed and incorporated during the period of European mercantile expansion, and ethnic groupings during the period of capitalist expansion.[72]

Writing in 1977 about the usage of the term "ethnic" in the ordinary language of Great Britain and the United States, Wallman noted

The term "ethnic" popularly connotes "[race]" in Britain, only less precisely, and with a lighter value load. In North America, by contrast, "[race]" most commonly means color, and "ethnics" are the descendants of relatively recent immigrants from non-English-speaking countries. "[Ethnic]" is not a noun in Britain. In effect there are no "ethnics"; there are only "ethnic relations".[73]

In the U.S., the OMB says the definition of race as used for the purposes of the US Census is not "scientific or anthropological" and takes into account "social and cultural characteristics as well as ancestry", using "appropriate scientific methodologies" that are not "primarily biological or genetic in reference".[74]

Ethno-national conflict[edit]

Further information: Ethnic conflict

Sometimes ethnic groups are subject to prejudicial attitudes and actions by the state or its constituents. In the 20th century, people began to argue that conflicts among ethnic groups or between members of an ethnic group and the state can and should be resolved in one of two ways. Some, like Jürgen Habermas and Bruce Barry, have argued that the legitimacy of modern states must be based on a notion of political rights of autonomous individual subjects. According to this view, the state should not acknowledge ethnic, national or racial identity but rather instead enforce political and legal equality of all individuals. Others, like Charles Taylor and Will Kymlicka, argue that the notion of the autonomous individual is itself a cultural construct. According to this view, states must recognize ethnic identity and develop processes through which the particular needs of ethnic groups can be accommodated within the boundaries of the nation-state.

The 19th century saw the development of the political ideology of ethnic nationalism, when the concept of race was tied to nationalism, first by German theorists including Johann Gottfried von Herder. Instances of societies focusing on ethnic ties, arguably to the exclusion of history or historical context, have resulted in the justification of nationalist goals. Two periods frequently cited as examples of this are the 19th-century consolidation and expansion of the German Empire and the 20th century Nazi Germany. Each promoted the pan-ethnic idea that these governments were acquiring only lands that had always been inhabited by ethnic Germans. The history of late-comers to the nation-state model, such as those arising in the Near East and south-eastern Europe out of the dissolution of the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires, as well as those arising out of the USSR, is marked by inter-ethnic conflicts. Such conflicts usually occur within multi-ethnic states, as opposed to between them, as in other regions of the world. Thus, the conflicts are often misleadingly labeled and characterized as civil wars when they are inter-ethnic conflicts in a multi-ethnic state.

Ethnic groups by continent[edit]

Africa[edit]

Main article: List of ethnic groups of Africa

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Ethnic groups in Africa number in the hundreds, each generally having its own language (or dialect of a language) and culture.

Asia[edit]

Main articles: Ethnic groups in Asia, East Asian people, South Asian ethnic groups, Ethnic groups of Southeast Asia, and Ethnic groups in the Middle East

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Assyrians are one of the indigenous peoples of Northern Iraq.

Ethnic groups are abundant throughout Asia, with adaptations to the climate zones of Asia, which can be the Arctic, subarctic, temperate, subtropical or tropical. The ethnic groups have adapted to mountains, deserts, grasslands, and forests.

On the coasts of Asia, the ethnic groups have adopted various methods of harvest and transport. Some groups are primarily hunter-gatherers, some practice transhumance (nomadic lifestyle), others have been agrarian/rural for millennia and others becoming industrial/urban. Some groups/countries of Asia are completely urban, such as those in Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Singapore. The colonization of Asia was largely ended in the 20th century, with national drives for independence and self-determination across the continent.

In Indonesia alone, there are more than 1,300 ethnic groups recognized by the government, which are located on 17,000 islands in the Indonesian archipelago

Russia has more than 185 recognized ethnic groups besides the eighty percent ethnic Russian majority. The largest group is the Tatars, 3.8 percent. Many of the smaller groups are found in the Asian part of Russia (see Indigenous peoples of Siberia).

Europe[edit]

Main article: Ethnic groups in Europe

The Basques constitute an indigenous ethnic minority in both France and Spain.

Sámi family in Lapland of Finland, 1936

The Irish are an ethnic group from Ireland of which 70–80 million people worldwide claim ancestry.[75]

Europe has a large number of ethnic groups; Pan and Pfeil (2004) count 87 distinct "peoples of Europe", of which 33 form the majority population in at least one sovereign state, while the remaining 54 constitute ethnic minorities within every state they inhabit (although they may form local regional majorities within a sub-national entity). The total number of national minority populations in Europe is estimated at 105 million people or 14% of 770 million Europeans.[76]

A number of European countries, including France[77] and Switzerland, do not collect information on the ethnicity of their resident population.

An example of a largely nomadic ethnic group in Europe is the Roma, pejoratively known as Gypsies. They originated from India and speak the Romani language.

The Serbian province of Vojvodina is recognizable for its multi-ethnic and multi-cultural identity.[78][79] There are some 26 ethnic groups in the province,[80] and six languages are in official use by the provincial administration.[81]

North America[edit]

Main articles: Ethnic origins of people in Canada, Ethnic groups in Central America, Demographics of Greenland, Demographics of Mexico, Ethnic groups in the United States, Indigenous peoples of the Americas § North America, Native Americans in the United States, Indigenous peoples in Canada, Indigenous peoples of Mexico, and Caribbean people

The indigenous people in North America are Native Americans. During European colonization, Europeans arrived in North America. Most Native Americans died due to Spanish diseases and other European diseases such as smallpox during the European colonization of the Americas. The largest pan-ethnic group in the United States is White Americans. Hispanic and Latino Americans (Mexican Americans in particular) and Asian Americans have immigrated to the United States recently. In Mexico, most Mexicans are mestizo, a mixture of Spanish and Native American ancestry. Some Hispanic and Latino Americans living in the United States are not mestizos.[citation needed]

African slaves were brought to North America from the 16th to 19th centuries during the Atlantic slave trade. Many of them were sent to the Caribbean. Ethnic groups that live in the Caribbean are: indigenous peoples, Africans, Indians, white Europeans, Chinese and Portuguese. The first white Europeans to arrive in the Dominican Republic were the Spanish in 1492. The Caribbean was also colonized and discovered by the Portuguese, English, Dutch and French.[82]

A sizeable number of people in the United States have mixed-race identities. In 2021, the number of Americans who identified as non-Hispanic and more than one race was 13.5 million. The number of Hispanic Americans who identified as multiracial was 20.3 million.[83] Over the course of the 2010s decade, there was a 127% increase in non-Hispanic Americans who identified as multiracial.[83]

The largest ethnic groups in the United States are Germans, African Americans, Mexicans, Irish, English,

Americans, Italians, Poles, French, Scottish, Native Americans, Puerto Ricans, Norwegians, Dutch people, Swedish people, Chinese people, West Indians, Russians and Filipinos.[84]

In Canada, European Canadians are the largest ethnic group. In Canada, the indigenous population is growing faster than the non-indigenous population. Most immigrants in Canada come from Asia.[85]

South America[edit]

Main article: Ethnic groups in South America

The Founding of the Brazilian Fatherland, an 1899 allegorical painting depicting Brazilian statesman José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva, one of the founding fathers of the country, with the flag of the Empire of Brazil and the three major ethnic groups in Brazil

In South America, although highly varying between regions, people are commonly mixed-race, indigenous, European, black African, and to a lesser extent also Asian.

Oceania[edit]

Main articles: Indigenous peoples of Oceania and Europeans in Oceania

Nearly all states in Oceania have majority indigenous populations, with notable exceptions being Australia, New Zealand and Norfolk Island, who have majority European populations.[86] States with smaller European populations include Guam, Hawaii and New Caledonia (whose Europeans are known as Caldoche).[87][88] Indigenous peoples of Oceania are Australian Aboriginals, Austronesians and Papuans, and they originated from Asia.[89] The Austronesians of Oceania are further broken up into three distinct groups; Melanesians, Micronesians and Polynesians.

Oceanic South Pacific islands nearing Latin America were uninhabited when discovered by Europeans in the 16th century, with nothing to indicate prehistoric human activity by Indigenous peoples of the Americas or Oceania.[90][91][92] Contemporary residents are mainly mestizos and Europeans from the Latin American countries whom administer them,[93] although none of these islands have extensive populations.[94] Easter Island are the only oceanic island politically associated with Latin America to have an indigenous population, the Polynesian Rapa Nui people.[95] Their current inhabitants include indigenous Polynesians and mestizo settlers from political administrators Chile, in addition to mixed-race individuals with Polynesian and mestizo/European ancestry.[95] The British overseas territory of Pitcairn Islands, to the west of Easter Island, have a population of approximately 50 people. They are mixed-race Euronesians who descended from an initial group of British and Tahitian settlers in the 18th century. The islands were previously inhabited by Polynesians; they had long abandoned Pitcairn by the time the settlers had arrived.[96] Norfolk Island, now an external territory of Australia, is also believed to have been inhabited by Polynesians prior to its initial European discovery in the 18th century. Some of their residents are descended from mixed-race Pitcairn Islanders that were relocated onto Norfolk due to overpopulation in 1856.[97]

The once uninhabited Bonin Islands, later politically integrated into Japan, have a small population consisting of Japanese mainlanders and descendants of early European settlers.[95] Archeological findings from the 1990s suggested there was possible prehistoric human activity by Micronesians prior to European discovery in the 16th century.[98]

Several political entities associated with Oceania are still uninhabited, including Baker Island, Clipperton Island, Howland Island and Jarvis Island.[99] There were brief attempts to settle Clipperton with Mexicans and Jarvis with Native Hawaiians in the early 20th century. The Jarvis settlers were relocated from the island due to Japanese advancements during World War II, while most of the settlers on Clipperton ended up dying from starvation and murdering one and other.[100]

Australia[edit]

Main articles: Indigenous Australians and Native white Australians

The first evident ethnic group to live in Australia were the Australian Aboriginals, a group considered related to the Melanesian Torres Strait Islander people. Europeans, primarily from England arrived first in 1770.

The 2016 Census shows England and New Zealand are the next most common countries of birth after Australia, the proportion of people born in China and India has increased since 2011 (from 6.0 per cent to 8.3 per cent, and 5.6 per cent to 7.4 per cent, respectively).

The proportion of people identifying as being of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander origin increased from 2.5 per cent of the Australian population in 2011 to 2.8 per cent in 2016.

See also[edit]

Society portal

Ancestor

Clan

Diaspora

Ethnic cleansing

Ethnic interest group

Ethnic flag

Ethnic nationalism

Ethnic penalty

Ethnocentrism

Ethnocultural empathy

Ethnogenesis

Ethnocide

Ethnographic group

Ethnography

Genealogy

Genetic genealogy

Homeland

Human Genome Diversity Project

Identity politics

Ingroups and outgroups

Intersectionality

Kinship

List of contemporary ethnic groups

List of countries by ethnic groups

List of indigenous peoples

Meta-ethnicity

Minority group

Minzu (anthropology)

Multiculturalism

Nation

National symbol

Passing (sociology)

Polyethnicity

Population genetics

Race (human categorization)

Race and ethnicity in censuses

Race and ethnicity in the United States Census

Race and health

Segmentary lineage

Stateless nation

Tribe

Y-chromosome haplogroups in populations of the world

References[edit]

^ Chandra, Kanchan (2012). Constructivist theories of ethnic politics. Oxford University Press. pp. 69–70. ISBN 978-0199893157. OCLC 829678440. Archived from the original on 2022-07-30. Retrieved 2020-09-11.

^ People, James; Bailey, Garrick (2010). Humanity: An Introduction to Cultural Anthropology (9th ed.). Wadsworth Cengage learning. p. 389. In essence, an ethnic group is a named social category of people based on perceptions of shared social experience or one's ancestors' experiences. Members of the ethnic group see themselves as sharing cultural traditions and history that distinguish them from other groups. Ethnic group identity has a strong psychological or emotional component that divides the people of the world into opposing categories of 'us' and 'them'. In contrast to social stratification, which divides and unifies people along a series of horizontal axes based on socioeconomic factors, ethnic identities divide and unify people along a series of vertical axes. Thus, ethnic groups, at least theoretically, cut across socioeconomic class differences, drawing members from all strata of the population.

^ "Insight into Ethnic Differences". National Institutes of Health (NIH). 2015-05-25. Archived from the original on 2021-08-02. Retrieved 2021-08-02.

^ Banda, Yambazi; Kvale, Mark N.; Hoffmann, Thomas J.; Hesselson, Stephanie E.; Ranatunga, Dilrini; Tang, Hua; Sabatti, Chiara; Croen, Lisa A.; Dispensa, Brad P.; Henderson, Mary; Iribarren, Carlos (2015-08-01). "Characterizing Race/Ethnicity and Genetic Ancestry for 100,000 Subjects in the Genetic Epidemiology Research on Adult Health and Aging (GERA) Cohort". Genetics. 200 (4): 1285–1295. doi:10.1534/genetics.115.178616. ISSN 0016-6731. PMC 4574246. PMID 26092716. Archived from the original on 2021-08-02. Retrieved 2021-08-02.

^ Salter, Frank; Harpending, Henry (2013-07-01). "J.P. Rushton's theory of ethnic nepotism". Personality and Individual Differences. 55 (3): 256–260. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.11.014. ISSN 0191-8869. Archived from the original on 2021-08-02. Retrieved 2021-08-02.

^ Bayar, Murat (2009-10-14). "Reconsidering primordialism: an alternative approach to the study of ethnicity". Ethnic and Racial Studies. 32 (9): 1639–1657. doi:10.1080/01419870902763878. S2CID 143391013. Archived from the original on 2022-03-03. Retrieved 2021-01-05.

^ Chandra Ford; Nina T Harawa (29 April 2010). "A new conceptualization of ethnicity for social epidemiologic and health equity research". Soc Sci Med. 71 (2): 251–258. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.04.008. PMC 2908006. PMID 20488602.

^ ἐθνικός Archived 2021-02-25 at the Wayback Machine, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus

^ ThiE. Tonkin, M. McDonald and M. Chapman, History and Ethnicity (London 1989), pp. 11–17 (quoted in J. Hutchinson & A.D. Smith (eds.), Oxford readers: Ethnicity (Oxford 1996), pp. 18–24)

^ ἔθνος Archived 2021-02-24 at the Wayback Machine, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus

^ Oxford English Dictionary Second edition, online version as of 2008-01-12, "ethnic, a. and n.". Cites Sir Daniel Wilson, The archæology and prehistoric annals of Scotland 1851 (1863) and Huxley & Haddon (1935), We Europeans, pp. 136,181

^ Cohen, Ronald. (1978) "Ethnicity: Problem and Focus in Anthropology", Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 1978. 7:379–403; Glazer, Nathan and Daniel P. Moynihan (1975) Ethnicity – Theory and Experience, Cambridge, Massachusetts Harvard University Press.

The modern usage definition of the Oxford English Dictionary is:

a[djective]

...

2.a. About race; peculiar to a specific tribe, race or nation; ethnological. Also, about or having common tribal, racial, cultural, religious, or linguistic characteristics, esp. designating a racial or other group within a larger system; hence (U.S. colloq.), foreign, exotic.

b ethnic minority (group), a group of people differentiated from the majority of the community by racial origin or cultural background, and usu. claiming or enjoying official recognition of their group identity. Also attrib.

n[oun]

...

3 A member of an ethnic group or minority. Equatorians

(Oxford English Dictionary Second edition, online version as of 2008-01-12, s.v. "ethnic, a. and n.")

^ roughly 300 million worldwide (CIA Factbook 2014 estimates, numbers subject to rapid population growth).

^ ὅμαιμος Archived 2021-02-25 at the Wayback Machine, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus

^ ὁμόγλωσσος Archived 2021-02-25 at the Wayback Machine, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus

^ I. Polinskaya, "Shared sanctuaries and the gods of others: On the meaning Of 'common' in Herodotus 8.144", in R. Rosen & I. Sluiter (eds.), Valuing others in Classical Antiquity (Leiden: Brill, 2010), 43–70.

^ ὁμότροπος Archived 2021-02-25 at the Wayback Machine, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus)

^ Herodotus, 8.144.2: "The kinship of all Greeks in blood and speech, and the shrines of gods and the sacrifices that we have in common, and the likeness of our way of life."

^ Athena S. Leoussi, Steven Grosby, Nationalism and Ethnosymbolism: History, Culture, and Ethnicity in the Formation of Nations, Edinburgh University Press, 2006, p. 115

^ "Challenges of measuring an ethnic world". Publications.gc.ca. The Government of Canada. April 1, 1992. Archived from the original on September 20, 2016. Retrieved August 28, 2016. Ethnicity is a fundamental factor in human life: it is a phenomenon inherent in human experience.

^ a b Fredrik Barth, ed. 1969 Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Cultural Difference; Eric Wolf 1982 Europe and the People Without History p. 381

^ Geertz, Clifford, ed. (1967) Old Societies and New States: The Quest for Modernity in Africa and Asia. New York: The Free Press.

^ Cohen, Abner (1969) Custom and Politics in Urban Africa: A Study of Hausa Migrants in a Yoruba Town. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

^ Abner Cohen (1974) Two-Dimensional Man: An essay on power and symbolism in complex society. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

^ J. Hutchinson & A.D. Smith (eds.), Oxford readers: Ethnicity (Oxford 1996), "Introduction", 8–9

^ Gellner, Ernest (1983) Nations and Nationalism. Oxford: Blackwell.

^ Ernest Gellner (1997) Nationalism. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.

^ Smith, Anthony D. (1986) The Ethnic Origins of Nations. Oxford: Blackwell.

^ Anthony Smith (1991) National Identity. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

^ T.H. Eriksen "Ethnic identity, national identity and intergroup conflict: The significance of personal experiences" in Ashmore, Jussim, Wilder (eds.): Social identity, intergroup conflict, and conflict reduction, pp. 42–70. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2001

^ Banton, Michael. (2007) "Weber on Ethnic Communities: A critique", Nations and Nationalism 13 (1), 2007, 19–35.

^ a b c d e Ronald Cohen 1978 "Ethnicity: Problem and Focus in Anthropology", Annual Review of Anthropology 7: 383–384 Palo Alto: Stanford University Press

^ James, Paul (2015). "Despite the Terrors of Typologies: The Importance of Understanding Categories of Difference and Identity". Interventions: International Journal of Postcolonial Studies. 17 (2): 174–195. doi:10.1080/1369801X.2014.993332. S2CID 142378403. Archived from the original on 2021-08-17. Retrieved 2016-03-12.

^ Vincent, Joan (1974), "The Structure of Ethnicity" in Human Organization 33(4): 375–379

^ Chandra, Kanchan (2006). "What is Ethnic Identity and Does it Matter?". Annual Review of Political Science. 9 (1): 397–424. doi:10.1146/annurev.polisci.9.062404.170715. ISSN 1094-2939.

^ Birnir, Jóhanna Kristín (2006). Ethnicity and Electoral Politics. Cambridge University Press. p. 66. ISBN 978-1139462600. Archived from the original on 2022-04-22. Retrieved 2022-03-21.

^ "David Konstan, "Defining Ancient Greek Ethnicity", Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies, vol. 6, 1 (1997), pp. 97–98. Overview of J.M. Hall's book "Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity", Cambridge University Press, 1997" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-04-17. Retrieved 2018-06-02.

^ a b c (Smith 1999, p. 13)

^ Smith (1998), 159.

^ Smith (1999), 5.

^ a b Noel, Donald L. (1968). "A Theory of the Origin of Ethnic Stratification". Social Problems. 16 (2): 157–172. doi:10.2307/800001. JSTOR 800001.

^ a b c Bobo, Lawrence; Hutchings, Vincent L. (1996). "Perceptions of Racial Group Competition: Extending Blumer's Theory of Group Position to a Multiracial Social Context". American Sociological Review. American Sociological Association. 61 (6): 951–972. doi:10.2307/2096302. JSTOR 2096302.

^ (Smith 1999, pp. 4–7)

^ Hobsbawm and Ranger (1983), The Invention of Tradition

^ Sider 1993 Lumbee Indian Histories.

^ Kolb, Eva (2009). The Evolution of New York City's Multiculturalism: Melting Pot or Salad Bowl. BoD – Books on Demand. ISBN 978-3837093032.

^ Levine, Randy; Serbeh-Dunn, Gifty (Spring 1999). "Mosaic vs. Melting Pot". Voices. Vol. 1, no. 4. Archived from the original on 2020-11-12. Retrieved 2021-10-01.

^ Pieter M. Judson The Habsburg Empire. A New History (Harvard 2016)

^ Patricia Engelhorn "Wie Wien mit Meersicht: Ein Tag in der Hafenstadt Triest" In: NZZ 15.2.2020; Roberto Scarciglia Trieste multiculturale: comunità e linguaggi di integrazione (2011); Ibanez B. Penas, Ma. Carmen López Sáenz. "Interculturalism: Between Identity and Diversity". (Bern) 2006. p 15.

^ Camoroff, John L. and Jean Camoroff 2009: Ethnicity Inc. Chicago: Chicago Press.

^ The Invention of Tradition

^ Sider 1993 Lumbee Indian Histories

^ O'Neil, Dennis. "Nature of Ethnicity". Palomar College. Archived from the original on 5 December 2012. Retrieved 7 January 2013.

^ Seidner, (1982), Ethnicity, Language, and Power from a Psycholinguistic Perspective, pp. 2–3

^ Smith 1987 pp. 21–22

^ Omi & Winant 1986, p. 15

^ Omi & Winant 1986, p. 58

^ a b c Omi & Winant 1986, p. 17

^ Omi & Winant 1986, p. 19

^ a b Omi & Winant 1986, p. 21

^ Gellner 2006 Nations and Nationalism Blackwell Publishing

^ Anderson 2006 Imagined Communities Version

^ Walter Pohl, "Conceptions of Ethnicity in Early Medieval Studies", Debating the Middle Ages: Issues and Readings, ed. Lester K. Little and Barbara H. Rosenwein, (Blackwell), 1998, pp 13–24, notes that historians have projected the 19th-century conceptions of the nation-state backward in time, employing biological metaphors of birth and growth: "that the peoples in the Migration Period had little to do with those heroic (or sometimes brutish) clichés is now generally accepted among historians", he remarked. Early medieval peoples were far less homogeneous than often thought, and Pohl follows Reinhard Wenskus, Stammesbildung und Verfassung. (Cologne and Graz) 1961, whose researches into the "ethnogenesis" of the German peoples convinced him that the idea of common origin, as expressed by Isidore of Seville Gens est multitudo ab uno principio orta ("a people is a multitude stemming from one origin") which continues in the original Etymologiae IX.2.i) "sive ab Alia national Secundum program collection distinct ("or distinguished from another people by its properties") was a myth. Archived 2015-04-23 at the Wayback Machine.

^ Aihway Ong 1996 "Cultural Citizenship in the Making" in Current Anthropology 37(5)

^ Nira Yuval-Davis, Gender & Nation (London: SAGE Publications Ltd, 1997)

^ Nira Yuval-Davis, Gender & Nation (London: SAGE Publications Ltd, 1997) pp. 12–13

^ Floya Anthias and Nira Yuval-Davis "Woman–Nation-State" (London: Macmillan, 1989), p. 9

^ Grosfoguel, Ramán (September 2004). "Race and Ethnicity or Racialized Ethnicities? Identities within Global Coloniality". Ethnicities. 315–336. 4 (3): 315. doi:10.1177/1468796804045237. S2CID 145445798. Archived from the original on 2013-02-06. Retrieved 2012-08-06.

^ Banton, Michael. (2007) "Weber on Ethnic Communities: A critique", Nations and Nationalism 13 (1), 2007, 19–35.

^ A. Metraux (1950) "United Nations Economic and Security Council Statement by Experts on Problems of Race", American Anthropologist 53(1): 142–145)

^ Griffith, David Craig, Jones's minimal: low-wage labor in the United States, State University of New York Press, Albany, 1993, p.222

^ Eric Wolf, 1982, Europe and the People Without History, Berkeley: University of California Press. 380–381

^ Wallman, S. "Ethnicity research in Britain", Current Anthropology, v. 18, n. 3, 1977, pp. 531–532.

^ "A Brief History of the OMB Directive 15". American Anthropological Association. 1997. Archived from the original on 2012-04-19. Retrieved 2007-05-18.

^ "The Scottish Diaspora and Diaspora Strategy: Insights and Lessons from Ireland". www2.gov.scot. 29 May 2009. Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 23 November 2018.

^ Christoph Pan, Beate Sibylle Pfeil, Minderheitenrechte in Europa. Handbuch der europäischen Volksgruppen (2002)., English translation 2004.

^ (in French) article 8 de la loi Informatique et libertés Archived 2019-03-20 at the Wayback Machine, 1978: "Il est interdit de collecter ou de traiter des données à caractère personnel qui font apparaître, directement ou indirectement, les origines raciales ou ethniques, les opinions politiques, philosophiques ou religieuses ou l'appartenance syndicale des personnes, ou qui sont relatives à la santé ou à la vie sexuelle de celles-ci."

^ Lux, Gábor; Horváth, Gyula (2017). The Routledge Handbook to Regional Development in Central and Eastern Europe. Taylor & Francis. p. 190.

^ Filep, Béla (2016). The Politics of Good Neighbourhood: State, civil society and the enhancement of cultural capital in East Central Europe. Taylor & Francis. p. 71.

^ "Serbian Government – Official Presentation". serbia.gov.rs. Archived from the original on 8 August 2018. Retrieved 26 March 2018.

^ "Beogradski centar za ljudska prava – Belgrade Centre for Human Rights". bgcentar.org.rs. 29 March 2015. Archived from the original on 7 August 2018. Retrieved 26 March 2018.

^ "Our People". Archived from the original on 2021-03-29. Retrieved 2022-05-22.

^ a b Tavernise, Sabrina (13 August 2021). "Behind the Surprising Jump in Multiracial Americans, Several Theories". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 26 March 2022. Retrieved 26 March 2022.

^ "Largest Ethnic Groups And Nationalities In The United States". 18 July 2019. Archived from the original on 2022-05-09. Retrieved 2022-05-22.

^ "21.9% of Canadians are immigrants, the highest share in 85 years: StatsCan". Archived from the original on 2022-05-30. Retrieved 2022-05-22.

^ Aldrich, Robert (1993). France and the South Pacific Since 1940. University of Hawaii Press. p. 347. ISBN 978-0824815585. Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 18 February 2022. Britain's high commissioner in New Zealand continues to administer Pitcairn, and the other former British colonies remain members of the Commonwealth of Nations, recognizing the British Queen as their titular head of state and vesting certain residual powers in the British government or the Queen's representative in the islands. Australia did not cede control of the Torres Strait Islands, inhabited by a Melanesian population, or Lord Howe and Norfolk Island, whose residents are of European ancestry. New Zealand retains indirect rule over Niue and Tokelau and has kept close relations with another former possession, the Cook Islands, through a compact of free association. Chile rules Easter Island (Rapa Nui) and Ecuador rules the Galapagos Islands. The Aboriginals of Australia, the Maoris of New Zealand and the native Polynesians of Hawaii, despite movements demanding more cultural recognition, greater economic and political considerations or even outright sovereignty, have remained minorities in countries where massive waves of migration have completely changed society. In short, Oceania has remained one of the least completely decolonized regions on the globe.

^ "ISEE – Salaires". Isee.nc. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 20 August 2017.

^ Census shows Hawaii is becoming whiter Archived 2008-08-29 at the Wayback Machine, starbulletin.com

^ "Australian Aboriginal peoples | History, Facts, & Culture | Britannica". Archived from the original on 2022-03-26. Retrieved 2022-03-26.

^ Terrell, John E. (1988). Prehistory in the Pacific Islands. Cambridge University Press. p. 91. ISBN 978-0521369565. Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 5 March 2022.

^ Crocombe, R. G. (2007). Asia in the Pacific Islands: Replacing the West. University of the South Pacific. Institute of Pacific Studies. p. 13. ISBN 978-9820203884. Archived from the original on 9 February 2022. Retrieved 24 January 2022.

^ Flett, Iona; Haberle, Simon (2008). "East of Easter: Traces of human impact in the far-eastern Pacific" (PDF). In Clark, Geoffrey; Leach, Foss; O'Connor, Sue (eds.). Islands of Inquiry. ANU Press. pp. 281–300. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.593.8988. hdl:1885/38139. ISBN 978-1921313899. JSTOR j.ctt24h8gp.20. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-12-31. Retrieved 2022-03-26.

^ Mountford, H. S.; Villanueva, P.; Fernández, M. A.; Jara, L.; De Barbieri, Z.; Carvajal-Carmona, L. G.; Cazier, J. B.; Newbury, D. F. (2020). "Frontiers | The Genetic Population Structure of Robinson Crusoe Island, Chile | Genetics". Frontiers in Genetics. Frontiersin.org. 11: 669. doi:10.3389/fgene.2020.00669. PMC 7333314. PMID 32676101.

^ Sebeok, Thomas Albert (1971). Current Trends in Linguistics: Linguistics in Oceania. the University of Michigan. p. 950. Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 2 February 2022. Most of this account of the influence of the Hispanic languages in Oceania has dealt with the Western Pacific, but the Eastern Pacific has not been without some share of the presence of the Portuguese and Spanish. The Eastern Pacific does not have the multitude of islands so characteristic of the Western regions of this great ocean, but there are some: Easter Island, 2000 miles off the Chilean coast, where a Polynesian tongue, Rapanui, is still spoken; the Juan Fernandez group, 400 miles west of Valparaiso; the Galapagos archipelago, 650 miles west of Ecuador; Malpelo and Cocos, 300 miles off the Colombian and Costa Rican coasts respectively; and others. Not many of these islands have extensive populations – some have been used effectively as prisons – but the official language on each is Spanish.

^ a b c Todd, Ian (1974). Island Realm: A Pacific Panorama. Angus & Robertson. p. 190. ISBN 978-0207127618. Archived from the original on 18 June 2022. Retrieved 2 February 2022. [we] can further define the word culture to mean language. Thus we have the French language part of Oceania, the Spanish part and the Japanese part. The Japanese culture groups of Oceania are the Bonin Islands, the Marcus Islands and the Volcano Islands. These three clusters, lying south and south-east of Japan, are inhabited either by Japanese or by people who have now completely fused with the Japanese race. Therefore they will not be taken into account in the proposed comparison of the policies of non-Oceanic cultures towards Oceanic peoples. On the eastern side of the Pacific are a number of Spanish language culture groups of islands. Two of them, the Galapagos and Easter Island, have been dealt with as separate chapters in this volume. Only one of the dozen or so Spanish culture island groups of Oceania has an Oceanic population – the Polynesians of Easter Island. The rest are either uninhabited or have a Spanish – Latin – American population consisting of people who migrated from the mainland. Therefore, the comparisons which follow refer almost exclusively to the English and French language cultures.

^ "History of Pitcairn Island | Pitcairn Island Immigration". Archived from the original on 2022-04-22. Retrieved 2022-03-26.

^ "Norfolk Island | History, Population, Map, & Facts | Britannica". Archived from the original on 2020-11-17. Retrieved 2022-03-26.

^ "小笠原諸島の歴史" (in Japanese). Archived from the original on 2019-09-09. Retrieved 2022-03-26.

^ "Education Resources: Regional Information, Jarvis Island | PacIOOS". Pacific Islands Ocean Observing System (PacIOOS). Archived from the original on 2022-05-10. Retrieved 2022-03-26.

^ US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. "Discovering the Deep: Exploring Remote Pacific MPAs: Background: The Hui Panalāʻau Story of the Equatorial Pacific Islands of Howland, Baker, and Jarvis: 1935–1942: NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research". oceanexplorer.noaa.gov. Archived from the original on 2022-06-01. Retrieved 2022-03-26.

Further reading[edit]

Barth, Fredrik (ed). Ethnic groups and boundaries. The social organization of culture difference, Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1969

Billinger, Michael S. (2007), "Another Look at Ethnicity as a Biological Concept: Moving Anthropology Beyond the Race Concept" Archived 2009-07-09 at the Wayback Machine, Critique of Anthropology 27, 1:5–35.

Craig, Gary, et al., eds. Understanding 'race' and ethnicity: theory, history, policy, practice (Policy Press, 2012)

Danver, Steven L. Native Peoples of the World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues (2012)

Eriksen, Thomas Hylland (1993) Ethnicity and Nationalism: Anthropological Perspectives, London: Pluto Press

Eysenck, H.J., Race, Education and Intelligence (London: Temple Smith, 1971) (ISBN 0851170099)

Healey, Joseph F., and Eileen O'Brien. Race, ethnicity, gender, and class: The sociology of group conflict and change (Sage Publications, 2014)

Hobsbawm, Eric, and Terence Ranger, editors, The Invention of Tradition. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983).

Kappeler, Andreas. The Russian empire: A multi-ethnic history (Routledge, 2014)

Levinson, David, Ethnic Groups Worldwide: A Ready Reference Handbook, Greenwood Publishing Group (1998), ISBN 978-1573560191.

Magocsi, Paul Robert, ed. Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples (1999)

Morales-Díaz, Enrique; Gabriel Aquino; & Michael Sletcher, "Ethnicity", in Michael Sletcher, ed., New England, (Westport, CT, 2004).

Omi, Michael; Winant, Howard (1986). Racial Formation in the United States from the 1960s to the 1980s. New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul, Inc.

Seeger, A. 1987. Why Suyá Sing: A Musical Anthropology of an Amazonian People, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

Sider, Gerald, Lumbee Indian Histories (Cambridge University Press, 1993).

Smith, Anthony D. (1987), The Ethnic Origins of Nations, Blackwell

Smith, Anthony D. (1998). Nationalism and modernism. A Critical Survey of Recent Theories of Nations and Nationalism. Routledge.

Smith, Anthony D. (1999), Myths and memories of the Nation, Oxford University Press

Steele, Liza G.; Bostic, Amie; Lynch, Scott M.; Abdelaaty, Lamis (2022). "Measuring Ethnic Diversity". Annual Review of Sociology. 48 (1).

Thernstrom, Stephan A. ed. Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups (1981)

^ U.S. Census Bureau State & County QuickFacts: Race.

External links[edit]

Look up ethnicity, ethnic, nationality, or nation in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

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